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THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF 
PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 


THE    ELY    LECTURES 

PUBLISHED    BY   CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 


The  Development   of   Palestine   Exploration.    By 

Frederick  J.   Bi.iss,  I'li.I).     liiiiio.    Sit,  $1.50. 
(Postage  extra.) 

The  Social  Meaning  of  Modern  Religious  Move- 
ments in  England.  By  Tuoma.-^  C.  IIai.l,  D.D. 
12iuo.     SI-^jO. 

The  Bible  and  Islam.  By  IIenuy  Preserved 
Smith,  D  D.     1:Jiiii).     ?1.50. 

Oriental    Religions   and   Christianity.    By  Frank 

F.   F.LLiNWooD,  I)  I).     l-..'in(i.     Si. 75. 

The  Evidence  of  Christian  Experience.  I?j'  I.ewi.s 
French  Stear.ns,  D.I^.     K'nio.     ji.'.oy. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

BEING 

XLbc  iBl^  Xecturcs  tor  1903 


BY 
FREDERICK   JONES    BLISS,    Ph.D. 

Author  of 
"A  Mound  of  Many  Cities,"  "Excavations  at  Jerusalem,  1894-1897,'"  etc. 


NEW    YORK 

CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

1906 


COPYKIGHT,    1906,    BT 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 
Published,   February,   1906 


TBOW  DIRECroRV 

PRINTING  AND  BOOKBINDING  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


Hi 


OS 


KEY-NOTE 

' '  It  was  like  communing  with  these  holy  men 
themselves  to  visit  the  places  where  their  feet  had 
trod,  and  where  many  of  them  had  held  converse 
with  the  Most  High."  So  muses  Robinson,  after 
following  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Patriarchs  and 
Prophets  in  an  excursion  to  the  north  of  Jerusalem. 


Here  is  an  old,  old  theme,  linking  together  the 
Pilgrims  to  Palestine ;  through  all  time  the  same — 
no  matter  to  what  key  it  be  attuned,  no  matter  with 
what  variations  it  be  expressed.  Sung  by  high- 
born Dame  from  the  West,  haughty  Mohammedan, 
fierce  Crusader,  poor  Jewish  Exile,  ponderous  Scho- 
lastic, staid  Puritan — yes,  by  modern  impressionist: 
Silvia,  Nasir,  Saewulf,  Rabbi  Parchi,  Quaresmio, 
Robinson,  Pierre  Loti — whatever  may  have  been 
your  song  before  you  came;  whatever  it  may  be 
when  you  return  home;  while  you  are  here,  this 
theme,  pulsating  in  the  very  atmosphere,  sings  itself 
into  your  heart,  sing  itself  how  it  may  on  your 
lips. 


INTRODUCTION 

This  volume  presents  the  Lectures,  delivered  be- 
fore the  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  1903  on  the 
Ely  Foundation,  with  considerable  amplification  and 
one  modification.  Lecture  VII  of  the  given  course 
was  entitled  ' '  Calvary  and  the  Tomb  of  Christ. ' '  For 
two  reasons  this  title  disappears,  though  part  of  the 
substance  of  the  Lecture  has  been  incorporated,  for 
illustrative  purposes,  in  Lecture  V  and  elsewhere  in 
the  volume.  On  preparing  the  material  for  publica- 
tion the  lecturer  realized  that  in  a  sketch,  treating 
in  a  broad  way  of  the  development  of  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration, the  elaboration  of  one  particular  feature, 
while  others  of  equal  importance  were  treated  only 
generally,  would  disturb  the  symmetry  of  the  whole. 
In  the  second  place,  a  far  more  exhaustive  treatment 
of  this  subject,  begun  indeed  before  the  lecture  was 
delivered,  has  been  recently  completed  by  Sir  Charles 
Wilson.  As  neither  Sir  Charles  nor  the  lecturer  had 
any  personal  views  to  promulgate,  the  latter  is  more 
than  content,  for  the  present,  at  least,  to  leave  the 
presentation  of  facts  in  such  capable  hands.  Until 
new  discoveries  furnish  fresh  data,  there  is  nothing 
to  add  to  Sir  Charles's  unbiassed  and  scholarly  work. 

I  accepted  the  offer  made  me  by  the  Directors  of 
the  Union  Theological  Seminary  to  lecture  on  the 
subject  of  Exploration  with  a  grateful  feeling  that  it 


Vlll  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

was  in  a  certain  sense  appropriate.  It  gave  me  the 
opportunity  to  show  that  the  principles  of  scholar- 
ship taught  in  this  Seminary  are  available  to  a  gradu- 
ate who  has  taken  up  the  work  of  archaeology,  as 
well  as  to  the  more  normal  graduates  who  have  en- 
tered the  ministry.  The  lectures,  indeed,  deal  only 
incidentally  and  briefly  with  my  own  explorations, 
but  whatever  success  I  may  have  had  is  due  to  my 
following  out  the  methods  of  investigation  imparted 
by  a  faculty  whose  motto  is :  The  Truth  and  noth- 
ing but  the  Truth.  From  a  Theological  Lecture- 
room  to  the  Digger's  camp  seems  to  be  a  far  cry, 
but  in  reality  it  is  not  so.  All  knowledge  is  cor- 
related. When  in  the  course  of  my  Jerusalem  exca- 
vations I  reached  a  confused  series  of  ancient  walls, 
at  the  end  of  a  long  tunnel  or  at  the  side  of  a  huge 
pit,  I  summoned  to  my  aid,  in  determining  the  com- 
parative ages  of  different  portions  of  the  masonry, 
the  methods  employed  at  Union  in  discussing  the 
composite  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch,  or  the  inter- 
chronological  relations  of  the  Synoptists.  For  the 
Elohist,  the  Yahwist,  the  Priestly  Narrator  and  the 
Redactor,  read  Soloman,  John  Hyrcanus,  Herod,  and 
Hadrian,  and  a  problem  of  Biblical  criticism  finds  its 
exact  analogy  in  a  study  of  ancient  walls  which  both 
superimpose  and  interpenetrate. 

The  scope  of  this  volume  is  indicated  by  the  title. 
Here  is  no  compendium  of  the  results  of  Palestine 
Exploration.  In  tracing  its  development  we  shall 
follow  the  progress  made  in  the  art  of  identifying 
sites;  for  lists  of  sites  identified  the  reader  must 
look  elsewhere.    We  shall  note  the  man  in  whom  first 


INTRODUCTION  ix 

began  to  wake  the  antiquarian  spirit;  detailed  de- 
scriptions of  the  monuments  themselves  are  wanting 
here.  The  shifting  point  of  view  of  travellers  from 
age  to  age;  the  displacement  of  the  Classic  geog- 
rapher by  the  credulous  pilgrim;  the  gradual  evolu- 
tion of  the  pilgrim  into  the  man  of  science — these 
are  some  of  the  themes  we  have  attempted  to  illus- 
trate. 1  As  visitors  to  the  Holy  Land  have  so  largely 
concentrated  their  attention  on  Palestine  proper,  that 
name  alone  appears  in  the  title,  but  we  shall  touch 
also  on  the  explorers  of  Syria. 

To  those  acquainted  with  Rohricht's  Bibliotheca 
Geographica  Palaestina,  with  its  3,515  names  of  writ- 
ers on  the  Holy  Land,  from  a.d.  333  to  1878 — writers 
who  were  for  the  most  part  actual  travellers — we 
need  not  say  that  we  have  attempted  no  comprehen- 
sive bibliography.  2  In  a  sense  our  little  volume  is 
itself  an  essay  toward  an  eclectic  and  comparative 
bibliography.  For  brief  critical  estimates  of  Works 
on  Palestine  we  may  recommend  the  lists  of  Ritter, 
Robinson,  Tobler,  Munk,  etc.  It  may  be  of  inter- 
est to  the  American  reader  to  know  how  rich  his 

« Aa  geography  is  treated  only  in  a  secondary  manner — tliat  is,  in 
illustration  of  the  varying  range  of  travel,  and  of  tlie  varying  atti- 
tude toward  the  subject  of  Identification — no  map  is  inserted. 

^  See  also  Deutsche  Pilgerreisen  nach  deni  Heiligcn  Lunde  von 
R.  Rohricht.  Neue  Ausgabe,  Innsbruck,  1900.  This  contains  lists 
compiled  from  every  available  source,  of  all  German  Pilgrims 
known  to  have  visited  the  Holy  Land  from  1300  to  1G!)9,  together 
with  the  lists  of  the  works  of  those  who  wrote,  sketches  of  the  im- 
portant routes,  names  of  places  visited,  etc.  For  critical  editions 
of  early  texts  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  publications  of  the  Societe 
de  rOrient  Latin,  as  well  as  to  others  mentioned  in  succeeding  foot- 
notes. 


X  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

country  is  in  the  literature  of  Palestine.  I  had  sup- 
posed that  I  could  not  complete  this  work  without  a 
visit  to  England  and  Europe,  but  scattered  among 
our  various  libraries  I  have  found  every  book  that  I 
have  sought  except  Michel  Nau's  "Voyage  nouveau 
de  la  Terre  Sainte."  Robinson's  Palestinian  library 
was  bought  en  bloc  by  his  Alma  Mater,  Hamilton 
College,  and  from  it  I  have  had  the  loan  of  two 
works  —  the  "Voyages"  of  D'Arvieux  and  the 
"Voyage  de  la  Terre  Sainte"  of  Doubdan,  neither 
of  which  I  could  find  elsewhere.  I  would  beg  to 
offer  hearty  thanks  for  especial  assistance  from  three 
Librarians — Dr.  Gillett  of  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Dr.  Morris  Jastrow  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Mr.  W.  I.  Fletcher  of  Amherst  College. 
I  have  also  consulted  books  belonging  to  Columbia, 
Harvard,  Yale,  the  New  York  Public  Library,  the 
Peabody  Library  and  the  Library  of  Congress. 

Though  the  following  lectures  take  for  granted  a 
general  knowledge  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  it  may  be 
well  here  to  give  a  fillip  to  the  reader's  memory. 
Used  in  a  broad  sense  the  term  Syria  means  the 
narrow  strip  of  land  at  the  east  end  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, about  400  miles  long  and  ranging  in  breadth 
from  70  to  100  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Taurus  Mountains;  on  the  west  by  the  Sea, 
and  on  the  east  and  south  by  the  Desert.  Though 
thus  isolated  by  nature,  Syria  has  been  the  high- 
road throughout  all  the  ages  between  Asia  and  Africa. 
But  her  history  is  more  strongly  stamped  by  this 
natural  seclusion  than  by  her  incidental  touch  with 
the  world.     Conquered  and  held  at  various  times  by 


INTRODUCTION  XI 

Egyptians,  Mesopotamians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Arabs, 
Franks  and  Turks,  she  has  alwaj^s,  even  if  in  a  second- 
ary sense,  maintained  a  degree  of  home-rule.  Pales- 
tine is  that  part  of  larger  Syria  lying  south  of  the 
river  Litany — the  ancient  Leontes — which  enters  the 
sea  between  Sidon  and  Tyre.  In  contradistinction  to 
Palestine,  Syria  may  be  said  to  extend  from  the 
Litany  northward  to  the  Taurus  Mountains.  From 
a  physical  point  of  view,  Palestine  may  be  divided  into 
four  belts  running  north  and  south — the  maritime 
plain  which  merges  into  the  low  hills  of  the  Shephelah, 
the  rocky  mountains  of  Judea  and  Samaria,  the  deep 
cleft  of  the  Ghor  or  Jordan  valley,  and  the  high 
table-land  rising  abruptly  beyond  the  river,  rent  with 
gorges  and  crossed  by  ranges  of  hills.  In  Syria 
proper  we  find  the  same  four  belts  in  a  modified 
form.  The  maritime  plain  is  in  places  effaced  by 
the  encroachment  of  the  Lebanon;  this  range  with 
its  continuation  in  the  Nuseiriyeh  Mountains  is  itself 
the  prolongation  of  the  Central  Palestinian  System ; 
the  place  of  the  Jordan  Cleft  is  taken,  at  first  by  the 
lofty  valley  of  the  Buka'a  and  farther  north  by  the 
valley  of  the  Orontes,  lower  than  the  Buka'a  but 
lofty  in  comparison  with  the  sub-Mediterranean  level 
of  the  Ghor.  Beyond  the  Anti-Libanus,  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Buka'a,  and  itself  a  continuation  of 
Mt.  Hermon,  we  find  again  a  broad  table-land  diver- 
sified by  crossing  ranges. 

Dr.  Post,  who  in  his  botanical  quests  has  travelled 
extensively  in  the  land,  has  well  said :  ' '  Syria  and 
Palestine  present,  in  a  geograi)lii(;al  area  of  say 
50,000  (square)  miles,  more  diversiti(,'S  and  anomalies 


Xll  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

than  any  equal  territory  of  the  globe."  ^  I  may  add 
that  to  realize  these  diversities  and  anomalies  one 
has  to  travel  but  a  few  hours.  The  depression  of 
the  Jordan  valley  furnishes  the  most  violent  con- 
trasts. Leaving  es-Salt  early  on  an  April  morning, 
I  rode  at  first  through  the  bracing  air  across  the 
richly  wooded  land  of  Gilead,  pierced  with  grassy 
glades,  gay  with  flowers,  gladdened  by  singing 
brooks.  Soon  after  noon  I  was  crouching  under  a 
bush  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  seeking  a  short 
respite  from  the  furnace  heat  before  attempting  the 
ride  to  Jericho  across  the  parched  and  arid  plain. 
The  reverse  of  this  experience  may  be  had  by  any 
winter  traveller  who  can  leave,  if  he  will,  the  sleet 
and  snow  of  Jerusalem,  and  a  few  hours  later 
listen  to  the  notes  of  tropical  birds,  nestling  in 
the  gardens  about  Elisha's  fountain,  or  bathe  in  the 
balmy  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  1,300  feet  below  the 
Mediterranean  level.  The  Sea  of  Galilee  is  680  feet 
below  sea-level,  and  Hermon  towers  some  10,000 
feet  above  it,  and  yet,  as  the  crow  flies,  the  distance 
between  lake  and  mountain  is  only  thirty  miles. 

Equally  striking  are  the  geological  features  of  the 
land.  The  limestone,  which  constitutes  the  greater 
part  of  the  mountain  chains,  is  in  the  Lebanon  inter- 
penetrated with  layers  of  sandstone.  In  the  intense 
and  glorifying  light  that  comes  from  the  sun  a  half 
hour  before  its  setting,  the  contrast  between  the 
gray  limestone,  weathered  into  fantastic  shapes  of 
tower  and  castle,  of  monstrous  plants  and  anti- 
diluvian  creatures,  and  the  brilliant  red  sandstone, 

>  Q.  S.     1890.     p.  99. 


INTRODUCTION  xiii 

stamped  with  the  ink-black  shadows  of  the  green 
pines,  is  strange  and  startling.  Syria  makes  little 
mystery  of  its  geology.  Much  of  it  may  be  studied 
on  horseback.  But  it  has  its  reserves.  From  the 
lower  ranges  of  the  Lebanon  may  be  excavated  a 
wealth  of  fossil  fish  caught  in  the  very  act  of  swim- 
ming by  some  mighty  upheaval  of  nature.  Iron  ore 
is  found  in  very  large  quantities,  although  at  the 
present  day  the  art  of  mining  it  has  fallen  practically 
into  disuse. 

Turning  to  Eastern  Palestine,  we  note  that  the 
ancient  towns  of  the  Hauran  are  built  of  the  local 
black  basalt,  so  hard  and  indestructible  that  the 
modern  inhabitants  continue  in  some  cases  to  live  in 
the  dwellings  of  their  remote  ancestors.  To  the 
northeast  of  the  Hauran  is  the  lava  region  of  the  Leja, 
roughly  speaking  twenty  miles  square,  whose  strange- 
ly undulating  surface  has  been  described  as  a  tem- 
pest in  stone.  In  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  which, 
though  not  the  Holy  Land,  is  the  Beulah  land  from 
which  the  Israelites  surveyed  in  hope  the  country  of 
their  longings,  are  found  mountains  of  granite,  so 
solid  and  unbroken  as  to  appear  to  be  Titanic  mono- 
liths. But  the  enumeration  of  these  rocky  features 
must  not  cause  us  to  forget  the  unique  fertility  of 
the  land.  Not  only  are  abundant  crops  of  wheat 
and  barley  reaped  from  the  plains  of  Philistia,  Gali- 
lee, Coele-Syria,  Hauran,  and  Northern  Syria,  but 
the  hill-sides  have  been  so  terraced  and  tilled  that 
the  very  stones  produce  fatness.  I  speak  in  no 
metaphor.  I  have  seen  a  man  ploughing  a  steep 
slope  whose  surface  showed  no  sign  of  soil  between 


XIV  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

the  stones.  From  this  field  of  barrenness  he  was 
wont  to  reap  a  sure  if  scanty  harvest.  As  to  the 
flora  in  general  our  chief  expert,  Dr.  Post,  says  it  is 
the  richest  of  any  country  of  its  size  in  the  world. 
To  the  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  ground  is  added 
an  adequate  water  supply.  The  thirsty  traveller  rid- 
ing in  the  summer's  heat  is  comforted  by  the  sight 
and  sound  of  rivers  bursting  full-grown  from  among 
the  rocks.  Little  rain  falls  between  May  and  Octo- 
ber, but  so  extensive  is  the  rude  system  of  irrigation 
that  during  the  summer  much  of  the  water  flowing 
in  the  many  streams  of  the  land  never  reaches  the 
sea.  The  whole  country  is  mined  with  ancient 
cisterns.  Jerusalem  now  depends  for  its  main  water 
supply  upon  similar  reservoirs. 

We  may  now  indicate  in  barest  outline  the  extraor- 
dinary historical  vicissitudes  of  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine which  have  so  conditioned  their  exploration. 
Before  the  invasion  of  Israel  from  Egypt  the  data 
are  few  and  unsatisfactory.  We  have  still  much  to 
learn  concerning  the  local  and  petty  monarchies 
brought  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Egyptian  Kings 
of  the  eighteenth  dynasty  to  understand  their  true 
origin,  their  ethnic  affinities,  their  relations  to  the 
mysterious  Hittites  of  the  North.  With  the  account 
of  the  Hebrew  conquests  history  begins  to  have  a 
firmer  basis.  The  establishment  of  the  Jewish  king- 
dom, its  subsequent  division,  the  growing  influence 
of  Assyria,  the  scattering  of  the  tribes  in  Exile,  the 
return  of  the  Jews  to  their  native  land,  still  held  by 
their  Persian  masters — these  points  must  be  at  the 
tip  of  the  tongue  of  every  Sunday-school  scholar,  not- 


INTRODUCTION  XV 

withstanding  the  alarmists  who  are  nowadays  deplor- 
ing the  decay  of  Biblical  knowledge.  Less  fully  ap- 
preciated is  the  power  of  the  Seleucidan  Kingdom, 
bringing  in  Greek  influences  against  which  the  Mac- 
cabees made  their  long  and  partially  successful  stand. 
With  the  entry  of  the  Romans  and  the  subsequent 
reign  of  that  semi-independent  ruler,  Herod  the 
Great,  the  land  entered  into  a  new  phase.  Military 
roads  were  extended  through  its  length  and  breadth ; 
splendid  cities,  whose  ruins  to-day  are  still  rich  in 
inscriptions,  sprang  up  east  of  the  Jordan ;  the  towns 
of  Western  Palestine  were  rebuilt  with  a  magnifi- 
cence they  had  never  had  before.  But  the  old  spirit 
of  Jewish  independence  was  still  burning  and  required 
for  its  extinction  a  storm  of  cataclysmic  violence. 
In  the  year  70  a.d.,  only  133  years  after  Pompey 
besieged  Jerusalem,  Titus  destroyed  the  city  and 
temple  after  a  siege  unparalleled  in  history  for  its 
horrors.  Even  this  storm  left  some  embers  smoul- 
dering. These  Bar  Chocheba  fanned  into  flames 
which  were  not  finally  extinguished  until  he  had  kept 
the  Romans  fighting  for  two  years  near  Jerusalem. 
In  135  A.D.  Hadrian  built,  on  the  ruins  left  by 
Titus,  a  Roman  city  under  the  name  of  Aelia  Capi- 
tolina.  The  last  act  of  the  Jewish  drama  had  closed. 
When  again  the  curtain  rose  it  was  upon  a  totally 
new  scene.  The  Nazarene  had  conquered.  The  Holy 
Land  was  under  the  sway  of  a  Christian  Emperor. 
Churches  began  to  be  erected  from  Dan  to  Beersheba. 
Jerusalem  became  the  centre  of  pilgrimages  which 
have  not  ceased  at  the  present  day.  In  following  the 
story  of  these  pilgrimages  and  their  gradual  devel- 


XVI  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

opment  into  expeditions  in  which  a  scientific  interest 
mingles  with  and  sometimes  dominates  the  religious 
motive,  we  shall  touch  incidentally  upon  the  passing 
of  the  land  from  Christian  to  Moslem  hands,  upon 
the  brief  reversion  to  Christian  rule  under  the  Cru- 
saders, upon  the  loss  of  the  Latin  Kingdom,  and  upon 
the  establishment  of  that  Turkish  rule  under  the 
Othman  dynasty  which  still  controls  the  Holy  Land, 
and  which  will  continue  to  control  it  until  some  other 
Power  can  show  better  credentials  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  order  among  its  many  conflicting  interests. 

Before  beginning  my  story  of  Palestine  Explora- 
tion, which  will  involve  the  mention  of  many  names, 
I  must  warn  the  reader  that  he  will  not  find  among 
these  that  of  the  Ideal  Explorer.  Robinson  in  field 
work  and  Petrie  in  excavation  come  near  the  mark, 
but  they  do  not  reach  it.  I  hasten  to  add  that  the 
Ideal  Explorer  is  as  difficult  of  realization  as  the 
Ideal  Man.  He  may  possibly  one  day  be  realized  in 
the  discoverer  of  the  North  Pole,  where  the  mission 
— than  which  none  is  more  arduous — is  one  of 
magnificent  simplicity;  but  I  fear  he  will  never  turn 
up  in  Palestine.  Our  sketch  of  the  Holy  Land  will 
have  been  of  little  avail  if  it  has  failed  to  show  that 
its  ideal  explorer  must  combine  the  qualities  of  a 
geographer,  a  geologist,  a  naturalist,  an  architect, 
an  archaeologist,  an  ethnologist,  an  historian,  an  epi- 
graphist,  a  Biblical  student,  a  painter,  a  mystic, 
and  a  poet.  If  he  is  an  excavator  as  well  he  must 
also  include  the  attainments  of  an  engineer  and  a 
miner.  But  first  and  foremost  he  must  be  a  man  of 
common-sense,   who  is  your  only  real  diplomatist. 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

Tact,  hitting  the  mark  in  one's  dealings  with  men, 
hitting  the  mark  in  dealing  with  one's  own  observa- 
tions, in  building  theories  upon  these — this  is  the 
one  thing  needful.  Every  explorer  who  has  approx- 
imated perfection  has  travelled  along  this  road.  All 
who  have  been  guided  by  common-sense  have  fur- 
nished lasting  contributions  to  the  mass  of  correct 
knowledge.  Our  present  knowledge  of  Palestine  we 
may  liken  to  a  mosaic  of  colored  tesserae,  which, 
though  broken  here  and  there,  yet  shows  broad  pat- 
terns and  many  curious  details.  Scattered  in  the 
surrounding  debris,  and  sometimes  buried  by  this, 
are  the  little  cubes  waiting  to  be  found  and  fitted 
into  their  proper  place.  For  the  parts  of  the  mo- 
saic now  complete  we  have  to  thank  the  Explorers 
of  the  Past,  for  the  filling  in  of  the  lacunce  we  look  to 
the  Explorers  of  the  Future. 
October,  1905. 


Note. — Since  this  book  went  to  press,  exploration  has 
met  a  great  loss  in  the  death  of  Sir  Cliarles  Wilson,  Chair- 
man of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund.  His  personal  experience  in  the  exploration  of 
the  Holy  Land,  his  minute  knowledge  of  the  historical 
references  to  the  country,  and,  above  all,  the  scientific 
spirit  with  which  he  approached  all  questions,  fitted  him 
preeminently  for  this  position. 


CONTENTS 


LECTURE  PAQK 

I.     The  Dawn  of  Exploration 1 

II.     The  Age  of  Pilgrimage 40 

III.  The  Crusaders  and  After 75 

IV.  From  Fabri  to  Robinson 121 

V.     Edward  Robinson 184 

VI.  Renan  and  His  Contemporaries    ....  224 

VII.  The  Palestine  Exploration  Fund     .     .     .  255 

VIII.  The  Exploration  of  the  Future  ....  288 


PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

LECTURE  I 

THE  DAWN   OF   EXPLORATION 

The  Century  Dictionary  defines  Exploration  as: 
"The  act  of  exploring;  search,  examination  or  in- 
vestigation, especially  for  the  purpose  of  discovery: 
specifically,  the  investigation  of  an  unknown  country 
or  part  of  the  earth. ' '  Linking  the  word  recovery 
to  discovery,  and  substituting  the  term  "partly 
forgotten  and  ruined  country "  for  "  unknown 
country, ' '  we  may  so  amend  this  definition  that  it  will 
apply  more  closely  to  the  exploration  of  the  lands 
with  a  great  historic  past — Babylonia,  Assyria, 
Egypt,  Greece,  the  Roman  territories,  Syria  and 
Palestine.  The  problem  in  exploring  these  countries 
is  primarily  that  of  identification.  Given  a  series 
of  historical  references  to  a  certain  land,  the  aim  is 
to  find  confirmation  of  these  by  investigation  on 
the  spot.  Recovery  here  precedes  discovery  both 
logically  and  actually,  if  by  recovery  we  mean  the 
bringing   again  to   light  a  site  or  mouuniont  lost, 


2  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

but  known  to  have  existed;  and  by  discovery  the 
adding  to  our  knowledge  of  facts  unknown  to  us 
before. 

The  proportion  which  recovery  may  bear  to  dis- 
covery in  a  given  land,  depends  upon  the  extent 
and  availability  of  the  historical  authorities.  The 
literature  which  has  come  down  from  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  is  not  only  large  in  bulk  but  is  written 
in  languages  which  have  never  been  forgotten ;  and, 
in  the  exploration  of  their  lands,  recovery  may  be 
said  to  have  held  the  scale  against  discovery.  Long 
chapters  of  Egyptian  history  were  inscribed  on  monu- 
ments that  have  never  been  lost,  others  upon 
monuments  subsequently  buried  in  the  sand;  but, 
buried  or  unburied,  they  all  were  inscribed  in 
characters  which  lost  their  meaning.  Till  near  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  they  excited  no 
feeling  but  dumb  wonder.  Then,  indeed,  the  Rosetta 
stone  unlocked  a  library  which  has  only  begun  to  be 
studied.  In  Egypt,  thus,  discovery  and  recovery 
so  interpenetrate,  are  so  interdependent,  that  the 
distinction  between  them  cannot  be  sharply  drawn. 
The  same  story  may,  with  local  variations,  be  told 
of  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  In  Palestine,  however, 
up  to  the  present  time,  recovery  has  greatly  out- 
balanced discovery,  and  the  line  of  demarcation 
between  them  is  clear.  To  produce  this  result  two 
causes  have  worked  together.  In  the  first  place,  as 
the  great  geographer  Ritter  has  pointed  out,  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  have 
furnished  information  in  regard  to  this  land  "to  an 
extent  unparalleled  in   any  other  country    of   the 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  3 

globe. ' '  1  Secondly,  the  impelling  purpose  of  the 
vast  majority  of  travellers  to  Palestine,  from  the 
time  of  Constantino  to  the  present  day,  has  been  a 
desire  there  to  find  confirmation,  illustration  and 
expansion  of  the  facts  presented  by  the  Bible.  Few, 
indeed,  are  the  exceptions.  Even  to  the  Arab 
geographers  the  land  of  the  Patriarchs,  of  David 
and  Solomon,  of  "our  Lord  'Isa,"as  the  Moslems 
call  Jesus,  had  a  peculiar  sanctity.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth and  nineteenth  centuries,  which  saw  the 
development  of  true  scientific  exploration,  we  may 
find  the  names  of  a  few  men  whose  interest  in 
the  Scriptures  was  secondary,  but  these  names  are, 
as  a  rule,  connected  with  very  specialized  forms  of 
research.  Kenan's  great  mission  to  Phoenicia,  it  is 
true,  concerned  itself  chiefly  with  pagan  remains, 
but  his  portly  volume  describing  the  excavations  is 
not  so  widely  known  as  his  "  Life  of  Jesus,"  which 
was  a  direct  result  of  his  visit,  and  which,  whatever 
may  be  its  historical  value,  presents  a  true  and  glow- 
ing picture  of  the  Holy  Land.  The  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund  calls  itself  ' '  A  Society  for  the 
accurate  and  systematic  investigation  of  the 
archaeology,  the  topography,  the  geology,  and  phys- 
ical geography,  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
Holy  Land,  for  Biblical  illustration."  Its  raison 
d'etre  is  given  by  the  last  phrase.  Biblical  illustra- 
tion is  the  explicitly  declared  aim  of  the  Society, 
though  incidentally  its  work  has  covered  a  wider  field. 
Thus  far,  we  repeat,  in  the  exploration  of  Palestine 

*  The  Comparativo  Gcof^raphy  of  Palestine  and  the  Sinaitic  Pen- 
insuhi,  by  Carl  Hitter.     (See  Translatiuu  by  Gage,  vol.  ii,  j).  27.) 


4:  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

recovery  has  outbalanced  discovery.  But  thanks 
especially  to  our  own  Robinson  and  to  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund,  the  former  work  has  now  ad- 
vanced toward  completion.  Recent  excavations, 
however,  have  furnished  high  hopes  for  extensive 
discoveries  in  the  future,  discoveries  that  will 
enable  us  to  fill  in  many  blank  places  of  Scriptural 
history. 

As  the  Bible  is  the  vast  store-house  from  which 
all  travellers  to  Syria  and  Palestine  have  primarily 
derived  the  knowledge  which  they  seek  to  confirm, 
before  examining  their  accounts,  we  are  bound  to 
consider  the  scope  and  character  of  this  informa- 
tion, although  in  the  main  it  is  furnished  by  writers 
who,  as  natives  of  the  lands  they  describe,  do  not 
fall  under  the  category  of  explorers.  In  scope  it 
covers  almost  every  field — geography,  the  physical 
aspects  of  the  country,  ethnology,  history,  religious 
institutions,  folk-lore.  The  Scriptural  material, 
then,  is  abundant.  The  character  of  the  informa- 
tion, however,  varies  with  the  subject  treated.  The 
religious  institutions  have  come  down  to  us  in  a  sys- 
tematic form,  whatever  the  date  and  value  of  the 
final  systematization  may  be;  the  same  is  true  in  a 
general  way  of  the  historical  portions.  But  the 
references  to  geography,  ethnology  and  folk-lore 
are  only  incidental  to  the  narrative,  are  interwoven 
with  the  narrative  for  purposes  of  illustration  and 
illumination.  Excellent  and  detailed  accounts  of 
the  habits  and  customs  of  the  Hebrews  have  often 
been  gathered  from  the  Bible,  but  the  work  is 
necessarily  one  of  collation  and  of  compilation.    This 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  5 

follows  not  only  from  the  fact  that  the  Bible  is  a 
collection  of  diverse  books,  written  by  diverse 
authors,  at  diverse  periods,  but  from  the  nature 
of  each  book  itself  and  the  point  of  view  of  its 
author,  which  is  never  scientific,  always  eminently 
practical.  Again,  as  touching  geography, "  the  con- 
tents of  the  biblical  books,"  to  quote  Ritter's  happy 
expression,  "are  not  to  be  considered  as  intention- 
ally or  directly  geographical;  they  are  so,  as  a 
general  rule,  only  in  a  secondary  sense."  Tabu- 
lated lists  of  cities  and  descriptions  of  boundary-lines 
may  be  found,  but  we  search  vainly  for  a  description 
of  the  land  as  a  whole  more  definite  than  the  state- 
ment that  it  was  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey.  Still,  by  piecing  together  the  almost  count- 
less references  scattered  through  the  histories — ref- 
erences to  cities  and  towns,  to  lakes  and  rivers,  to 
plains  and  mountains,  to  military  movements — a  care- 
ful reader,  relying  on  no  other  source,  might  form 
a  general  idea  of  the  country  which  would  be  extraor- 
dinarily accurate. 

We  must  emphasize  the  word  general.  Should 
our  reader  attempt  to  place  his  results  on  a  map, 
there  would  be  many  curious  lacunce.  Take,  for 
example,  the  main  river  of  Palestine,  the  Jordan, 
That  it  ran  through  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the 
land  is  proved  by  the  statements  that  it  served  as 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  tribes  from  Naphtali  on 
the  north  to  Benjamin  on  the  south.  *  Its  magni- 
tude is  shown  by  the  implication  in  the  narrative, 
that  without  miraculous  intervention  tlie  Israelitish 

'  Josh,  19,  34  ;   18,  20. 


6  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

host  could  not  have  crossed  it  near  Jericho,  as  well 
as  by  the  statements  that  fords  occur  elsewhere,  and 
that  it  overflows  its  banks  at  the  time  of  harvest.  ^ 
Its  topographical  relations  to  Gilead  and  Bashan  are 
clearly  indicated.  2  Its  situation  in  a  plain  is  em- 
phasized frequently.  ^  The  phrases  "the  Salt  Sea 
even  unto  the  end  of  Jordan,"  "the  Sea  at  the 
uttermost  part  of  Jordan,"  and  "the  Salt  Sea  at 
the  south  end  of  Jordan ' '  point  to  its  final  absorp- 
tion. ^  That  it  flows  through  the  Sea  of  Galilee — 
the  Sea  of  Chinnereth  of  the  Old  Testament — might 
be  fairly  inferred  by  collating  several  passages  which 
elucidate  the  boundaries  of  the  tribes.  ^  But  for 
any  indication  of  its  course  through  the  Waters 
of  Merom  (the  Lake  of  Huleh),  for  any  mention 
of  its  main  sources  in  the  copious  fountains  at 
Tell-el-Kady  and  Banias,  or  its  more  distant  source 
at  the  head  of  the  Hasbany  River,  we  look  in  vain. 
This  somewhat  lengthy  example  will  serve  to  indi- 
cate the  limitations  of  a  purely  Biblical  geography 
not  supplemented  by  exploration. 

The  nature  of  Scriptural  information  respecting 
the  position  of  cities  has  an  important  bearing  on 
questions  of  identification.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
to  remind  the  reader  that  geographical  science  did 
not  develop  the  method  of  fixing  a  place  by  latitude 
and  longitude  till  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  but  we  must  here  emphasize  the  paucity  and 
indefiniteness  of  the  Scriptural  references  to  distance 

"Josh.  3,  13-15;  Judg.  3,  28.  'Josh.  17,  5. 

»Gen.  13,  10  ;  I  Kings  7,  46,  etc.  Uosh.  15,  o;  18,  19. 

'Deut.  3,  17;  Joah.  19,  22  and  3-1. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  7 

and  direction.  In  the  Old  Testament  narratives  it 
is  natural  to  find  the  chief  towns  referred  to  simply 
by  name,  as  places  known  to  the  Hebrew  reader. 
The  foreign  reader  must  deduce  the  mutual  relation 
of  places  from  incidental  references,  such  as  the 
statement  that  in  going  from  one  town  to  another 
in  one  day  such  and  such  towns  are  passed  on  the 
way.  Deductions  like  these,  however,  are  only 
general.  In  the  tabulated  lists,  where  we  might 
legitimately  expect  more  precision,  we  find,  as  a 
rule,  merely  groups  of  the  towns  in  a  given  district. 
The  description  of  the  tribe-boundaries  indeed  often 
gives  the  general  direction  of  one  place  from  another, 
but  without  the  distance.  This  topographical  in- 
definiteness  is  well  illustrated  by  the  difficulty  in 
identifying  cities  once  of  prime  importance,  when 
the  ancient  name  is  not  undisputedly  extant  at  some 
site  known  to  the  people  of  the  land  to-day.  The 
archseological  science  of  a  century  has  failed  to  lo- 
cate, without  doubt,  either  Gath  or  Megiddo — cities 
which  played  great  roles  in  Jewish  history.  Our 
excavations  at  Tell-es-Safi  have  furnished  a  high 
probability  that  this  is  the  site  of  Gath.  But  high 
probability  is  not  certainty.  The  majority  of  ex- 
perts have  placed  Megiddo  at  Lejjun,  or  at  the 
adjacent  Tell-el-Mutasellim ;  but  Conder  thinks  he 
finds  a  survival  of  the  name  at  Mujedda',  some 
eighteen  miles  to  the  southeast  at  the  foot  of  Mt. 
Gilboa.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  tlie  German  excava- 
tions now  proceeding  at  Tell-el-Mutasellim  will  throw 
new  light  on  the  identification. 

This  matter  may  be  illustrated  even  mure  closely. 


8  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

It  may  be  almost  invariably  assumed  when  experts 
in  theology,  history,  archaeology  or  in  fact  any 
science,  differ  among  themselves  fundamentally  in 
their  interpretations  of  given  data  that  these  data 
are  either  insufficient  or  indefinite,  or  more  probably 
both.  Had  the  Old  Testament  references  to  the 
divisions  of  Jerusalem  been  clear,  then  the  exegetes 
would  never  have  fallen  into  two  parties,  one  placing 
Zion  on  the  Eastern  or  Temple  Hill,  the  other  on 
the  Western  Hill.  Had  the  New  Testament  writers 
shown  more  precision  in  locating  Golgotha  and  the 
Tomb,  then  one  of  the  fiercest  controversies  in  con- 
nection with  the  Holy  City  would  never  have  raged. 
The  only  actual  fact  relating  to  the  place  of  cruci- 
fixion which  a  strict  exegesis  can  find  in  the  Biblical 
narratives  is  that  it  was  situated  somewhere  outside 
the  city  near  a  new  rock-cut  sepulchre.  It  may  also 
be  legitimately  inferred  that  it  was  near  a  public 
highway.  But  there  is  nothing  to  show  whether  it 
was  north,  south,  east  or  west  of  the  city.  There  is 
nothing  to  show  whether  Golgotha,  the  Place  of  the 
Skull,  was  on  a  hill  or  in  a  valley.  There  is  no 
explanation  why  it  was  so  called.  ^ 

We  may  now  run  rapidly  over  the  chief  passages 
in   the   Old   Testament  which    have,    to  a  certain 

'  Sir  Charles  Wilson,  who  states  and  criticises  the  various  theories 
irap<artially,  sums  up  as  follows:  "The  conclusion  which  seems  to 
follow  from  tlie  ahove  discussion  is  that  Golgotha  derived  its  name 
from  a  local  legend  which  connected  it  with  a  skull,  })ossihly  that 
of  Adam,  as  all  the  early  Christian  fathers  who  mention  the  suhjecl 
assert.  And  the  theories  wjiich  identify  'the  Place  of  a  Skull' 
with  a  puhlic  place  of  execution,  or  with  a  spot,  whether  on  an 
eminence  or  not,  which  rcsenihled  a  Skull,  are  of  later  growth  and 
probably  of  Western  origin."     (Q.  S.  li)02,  p.  151.) 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  9 

extent,  a  direct  topographical  character.  ^  In  a 
treatment  like  the  present,  which  aims  to  illustrate, 
in  a  general  way,  the  methods  of  the  Hebrews  in 
handling  their  geographical  knowledge,  we  may 
legitimately  take  these  statements  at  their  face 
value,  without  entering  into  questions  of  strict  his- 
toricity, date  and  composite  authorship.  I  may 
remark,  in  passing,  that  the  important  bearing 
which  Biblical  criticism  has  had  upon  topographical 
detail  has  been  pointed  out  by  George  Adam  Smith 
in  the  Preface  to  his  ' '  Historical  Geography  of  the 
Holy  Land." 

The  alleged  earlier  references  are  strictly  germane 
to  our  subject,  as  they  deal  mainly  with  the  true  ex- 
ploration of  Palestine — with  the  investigation  of  a 
comparatively  unknown  land  by  a  conquering  race  and 
the  division  thereof  among  its  tribes.  Passing  over 
the  famous  account  of  the  raid  of  Abram  against 
Chedorlaomer  and  the  allied  kings,  a  passage  that 
concerns  ethnology  rather  than  geography,  we  find 
in  Numbers  13,  the  record  of  a  genuine  exploration 
— the  expedition  which  Moses  is  said  to  have  de- 
spatched from  Kadesh  Barnea,  where  the  Israelites 
were  encamped,  to  spy  out  the  land.  We  have  a 
list  of  the  twelve  explorers,  the  admirable  and  ex- 
haustive programme  laid  down  for  them  by  Moses, 
and  the  length  of  duration  of  the  campaign — forty 
days.  But,  unfortunately,  their  report  reaches  us  in 
an  abbreviated  form.     We  learn  merely  that  the  limit 

'  Tlie  olik'f  systematic  topographical  references  in  tlie  New  Tes- 
tament are  concerned  with  St.  Paul's  missionary  journeys,  which 
took  him  largely  out  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 


10  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

of  their  journey  was  the  entering  in  of  Hamath,  at 
the  northern  end  of  the  plain  of  Coele-Syria,  between 
the  Lebanons;  that  they  visited  Hebron  and  the 
Vale  of  Eschol,  a  specimen  of  whose  grapes  they 
brought  back ;  that  the  land  was  rich  in  natural  prod- 
ucts, but  that  the  cities  were  formidable  by  reason 
of  their  fortifications.  No  list  of  these  cities  is 
preserved,  though  the  names  of  the  tribes  or  races 
dwelling  in  the  various  districts  are  enumerated. 

The  geographical  value  of  the  list  of  the  forty- 
two  stations  of  the  Israelites  in  their  journey  from 
Rameses  to  Sinai  and  from  Sinai  to  the  plains  of 
Moab  1  may  be  gathered  from  Dr.  Trumbull's  con- 
clusion to  the  section  of  his  "Kadesh  Barnea,"  en- 
titled ' '  The  Time  between  the  Stations. "  "In  short, 
everything  combines  to  show  that  the  mention  of 
two  stations  in  juxtaposition  in  the  record  of  the 
Israelites'  journey ings  gives  no  indication  of  the 
nearness  of  these  stations  to  each  other;  gives  no 
reason  for  supposing  that  they  are  only  a  day's  dis- 
tance apart.  Moreover,  it  is  evident  that  in  some 
cases  such  nearness  is  an  impossibility. ' '  2 

According  to  the  Book  of  Numbers,  before  the 
Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan  the  limits  of  the  land 
which  they  were  to  possess  were  given  to  them  with 
considerable  geographical  precision,  and,  according 
to  Deuteronomy,  its  main  physical  divisions  were 
enumerated.  The  boundaries  of  the  territories  of 
the  Kings  of  the  Amorites,  east  of  the  Jordan,  are 
also  described. '"^     But  for  the  great  wealth  of  geo- 

'  NumbtTH,  chap.  33.  '  V.  147. 

^Numbers,  chap.  34.     Dout.  1,  G-7 ;  4,  47-49. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  11 

graphical  information  we  must  turn  to  the  Book 
of  Joshua.  If  the  Bible  is  a  geographical  store- 
house, then  this  Book  is  its  inner  chamber  of  jewels. 
Here  we  find  the  topographical  results  of  the  trans- 
Jordanic  conquests;  here  we  find  the  list  of  the 
thirty-one  Royal  Cities,  whose  kings  were  overcome, 
enumerated  in  a  somewhat  loose  order  from  south 
to  north;  here  is  a  list  of  places  still  to  be  con- 
quered; here  we  may  note  the  names  and  location  of 
the  towns  set  apart  to  be  cities  of  refuge ;  here  are 
the  cities,  scattered  through  the  country,  assigned 
to  the  Levites,  who  had  no  especial  territory;  and 
here,  most  important  of  all,  are  the  boundaries  of 
the  tribes,  east  and  west  of  the  Jordan,  i  The 
explicitness  and  detail  with  which  these  boundaries 
are  laid  down,  especially  in  the  case  of  Judah  and 
Benjamin,  could  have  left  no  mooted  point  for  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  to  whom  every  landmark 
mentioned,  every  town,  village,  well  or  fountain, 
was  well  known.  For  them  the  description  was  a 
chain  with  all  its  links  complete.  But  for  us  it  is  a 
problem  in  Algebra  full  of  unknown  quantities.  In 
resolving  the  relations  between  a  lost  site  and  those 
which  have  been  preserved  we  have  to  deal  with 
many  equations.  As  we  have  stated  before,  the 
difficulty  of  the  problem  arises  from  the  absence  of 
distances  and  the  indefiniteness  in  the  indication  of 
direction. 

After  the   Book   of  Joshua,  the    passages    ex- 
plicitly dealing  with  topography  are  less  frequent. 

'Joshua  12,   1-6  and  7-24;   13,  2-G;  20,   7-8  (cf.  chap.  21  and 
I  Chron.  C,  64-81);  and  chaps.  13-19  inclusive. 


12  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

We  may  merely  note  the  most  important.  In  the 
Book  of  Judges  we  find  mention  of  the  towns  from 
which  the  original  inhabitants  were  not  driven  out.^ 
In  First  Chronicles  we  have  a  list  of  David's  mili- 
tary companions  with  their  habitat.  ^  In  First  Kings 
are  the  divisions  of  the  country  presided  over  by 
Solomon's  twelve  officers  of  the  Commissariat,  in- 
cluding the  chief  cities  of  each  district.  ^  In  Sec- 
ond Chronicles  are  enumerated  the  cities  of  Judah 
fortified  by  Rehoboam.*  In  Nehemiah  we  find  the 
names  of  the  cities  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  rein- 
habited  after  the  Exile.  ^  As  bearing  directly  upon 
the  topography  of  Jerusalem  we  must  note  the  ac- 
counts of  the  rebuilding  of  its  walls  by  Nehemiah, 
and  of  their  dedication.  ^  More  indirectly  topograph- 
ical but  of  architectural  importance  is  the  detailed 
description  of  Solomon's  Temple. ^ 

So  much  for  the  character  and  scope  of  the  geo- 
graphical references  contained  in  the  Bible.  How 
these  have  been  confirmed,  explained  and  supple- 
mented by  Exploration  may  be  gathered  from  the 

» Judg.  1,  21-35. 

« I  Cbron.  12,  3-7. 

3  I  Kings  4,  7-19. 

*II  Chron.  11,  G-10. 

'Neh.  11,  25-26. 

"Neh.,  chap.  3,  an  chap.  12,  27-40.  These  accounts  are 
further  illustrative  of  tlie  sort  of  data  which  give  rise  to  theories 
differing  from  eacli  other  diametrically.  Tiie  course  of  Nehemiah's 
wall  and  the  position  of  tlie  gates  are  laid  down  differently  by 
almost  every  student  of  Jerusalem  topography.  The  line  south  of 
tlie  modern  city  can  now,  since  the  excavations  of  Bliss  and  Dickie, 
be  fairly  well  determined,  but  the  two  gates  discovered  are  vari- 
ously identified. 

*  I  Kings,  chaps.  6  and  7 ;  cf.  II  Chron  ,  chaps.  3  and  4. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  13 

succeeding  lectures,  which  are  to  deal  with  travellers 
who  visited  the  Holy  Land  for  its  own  sake.  But 
before  we  take  up  the  story  of  the  Pilgrims  it  will 
be  well  to  consider  the  relations  of  a  more  ancient 
world  to  Syria  and  Palestine.  In  reviewing  the 
early  Egyptian  and  Mesopotamian  references  to  these 
countries  we  must  bear  in  mind  the  scope  of  our 
subject,  namely,  the  development  of  their  explora- 
tion. To  tabulate  every  reference,  a  task  indis- 
pensable to  a  historical  sketch,  would  be  here  quite 
unedifying.  Our  problem  is  rather  to  illustrate  as 
far  as  we  can  the  knowledge  available  to  foreigners 
during  these  early  ages  concerning  these  lands,  and 
for  this  certain  documents  have  a  value  quite  out 
of  proportion  to  their  historical  bearing.  Thus,  while 
the  notices  prior  to  the  second  millennium  B.C.  may 
be  passed  over  with  the  remark  that  they  consist 
merely  of  brief  and  often  vague  mention  of  inva- 
sion, or  of  reference  to  exported  products,  ^  the  first 
document  to  be  considered  is  not  history  i)ut  a  ro- 
mance. The  Egyptian  Papyrus  which  goes  under 
the  name  of  the  Romance  of  Sinuhit — for  we  shall 
review  first  the  Egyptian  records — dates  from  the 
time  of  Usertesen  I.,  about  1966  B.C. 2  Sinuhit, 
apparently  a  son  of  Amenemhat  I. ,  after  a  series  of 
adventures  in  his  flight  before  his  father's  successor, 
is  hospitably  received  by  Ammianshi,  the  ruler  of 
Upper  Tenu,  held  by  Miiller  to  be  simply  an  abbre- 

'  For  these  early  references,  see  Paton,  Tlie  Early  History 
of  Syria  and  Palestine,  chaps,  i-iii;  cf.  Conder,  Q.  S.,  1904, 
pp.  lG8fF. 

■^  Maspero,  R.  P.,  New  Series,  vol.  ii,  pp.  11  flf. 


14  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

viation  of  Upper  Rutenu,  the  early  Egyptian  name 
for  Palestine  and  Southern  Syria,  i  Given  his  choice 
among  the  frontier  possessions  of  the  land,  he  fixed 
upon  the  district  Eaa,  rich  in  figs  and  vines,  in  olive- 
groves  and  corn-fields,  in  wine  and  honey.  Herds 
of  cattle  were  plentiful,  and  his  poultry-yards  well 
stocked,  for  he  feasted  on  boiled  meat  and  roast 
goose.  He  followed  the  chase  with  his  greyhounds. 
A  rough,  merry  life  he  led  for  many  years,  enlivened 
by  raids  against  the  neighboring  Bedawin,  but  he  was 
glad  in  his  old  age  to  return  to  the  comforts  of  civil- 
ization in  Egypt,  where,  forgetting  the  vermin  of 
Syria,  once  again  he  could  anoint  his  body,  wear 
fine  clothes,  and  enjoy  the  luxury  of  a  soft  bed.  The 
account  is  pure  fiction,  but  the  picture  of  the  land  is 
doubtless  true  enough.  For  us  its  importance  lies  in 
the  indication  that  a  traveller  to  Palestine,  about 
2000  B.C.,  found  there  a  civilization  old  enough  to 
have  an  extended  agriculture,  and  yet  still  robust 
and  uncorrupted  by  luxury. 

For  the  first  detailed  historical  presentation  of 
Syria  and  Palestine,  found  in  Egyptian  sources,  we 
have  to  come  down  some  500  years  after  Usertesen  I. 
to  the  time  of  Thothmes  IH.,  who  became  sole  master 
of  Egypt  about  1493  b.c.^  On  the  walls  of  the 
temple  of  Amen  at  Karnak  are  found  pictured  his 

'  Miiller,  Asien  und  Europa,  p.  47.  Maspero  holds  that  Tonu 
must  include  at  least  tlie  district  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  the 
Sinaitic  Peninsula. 

'The  extensive  conquests  of  Thothmes  I.  (c.  1544  b.c.)  are  very 
briefly  recorded  on  the  tombs  of  his  captains,  Aaiimes  and  Pennek- 
heb,  at  El  Kab.  For  the  account  of  the  former,  see  Renouf,  K.  P., 
ii,  p.  5. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  15 

Annals,  describing  fourteen  campaigns  in  those 
lands.  1  Light  is  thrown  on  their  material  wealth 
by  the  lists  of  spoil,  including  vessels  of  gold  and 
silver,  chariots,  inlaid  furniture  of  wood  and  ivory, 
embroidered  garments,  jars  of  incense  and  of  honey, 
and  collections  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Of  still  more 
particular  interest  is  the  Hst  of  Princes  of  119  towns 
of  Upper  Rutenu  or  Palestine, ^  "shut  up  in  the  mis- 
erable town  of  Maketa  (Megiddo),"  the  siege  of 
which  the  Annals  describe  in  detail.  The  names  of 
the  towns,  inscribed  on  small  tablets  attached  to  the 
necks  of  the  captive  Princes,  bear  witness  to  the 
marvellous  tenacity,  through  all  the  ages,  of  the 
ancient  pre-Israelite  nomenclature.  Scholars  differ 
as  to  the  exact  number  ^  to  be  identified  with  sites 
known  at  the  present  day  and  also  in  some  cases 
adopt  different  identifications,  but  among  others  the 
Egyptian  equivalents  of  Kadesh,  Beyrout,  Damas- 
cus, Megiddo,  Taanach,  Merom,  Laish  (or  Dan), 
Joppa,  Ekron,  and  Gezer  may  be  recognized  with 
certainty.  In  the  North  Syrian  list  of  about  235 
names,  which  reach  beyond  the  Euphrates,  the  pro- 
portion of  attempted  identifications  is  much  smaller 
and  their  value  more  uncertain,  the  modern  geog- 
raphy of  this  large  district  being  less  known  than 
that  of  Palestine,  but  in  the  district  of  Amatu  we 

'  Maspero,  Recueil  de  Travaui,  i,  ii ;  Petrie,  History  of  Egypt, 
ii,  pp.  103  ff. 

^See  Conder,  Q.  S.,  1876,  pp.  87  £f.  and  140  ff. ;  Tomkins, 
R.  P.,  New  Series,  v,  pp.  25 ff;  Petrie,  History  of  Egypt,  ii,  pp. 
322  ff. 

'Tonikins  suggests  identifications  of  three-quarters  of  the  names, 
Petrie  an  even  larger  proportion. 


16  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

may   clearly   recognize    Hamath,    and    in    that   of 
Khalbu,  Aleppo.  1 

A  consideration  of  the  correspondence  contained 
in  the  320  famous  cuneiform  tablets  found  at  Tell- 
el-Amarna — a  correspondence  conducted  about  the 
fifteenth  century  B.C.,  during  the  reign  of  Amenho- 
tep  III.  and  Amenhotep  IV. — belongs  logically  to  a 

*  Other  important  records  of  Egyptian  military  conquests  in  Syria 
are  as  follows  :  In  the  temple  of  Amen  at  Karnak  occurs  a  series  of 
pictures  with  inscriptions,  representing  among  the  other  deeds  of 
Sety  I.  (c.  1347)  an  attack  on  Kadesh.  (Lushington,  Trans.  Soc. 
Bibl.  Arch.,  vi,  pp.  509  ff.)  The  same  temple  contains  lists  of  the 
places  in  Syria  conquered  by  Rameses  II.  (1324-1258)  and  Rameses 
III.  (1204-1191)  (Sayce,  R.  P.,  Xew  Series,  vi,  pp.  19  £f.),  together 
with  a  copy  of  the  treaty  made  by  the  former  with  the  Hittites 
(Goodwin,  R.  P.,  iv,  pp.  25 ff.).  The  Ilittite  War  is  also  described 
in  the  tliird  Sallier  Papyrus,  by  the  royal  scribe  Pentaur  (Lushing- 
ton, R.  P.,  ii,  pp.  65  ff.).  A  badly  mutilated  list  of  the  towns  taken 
by  Rameses  II.  is  found  at  the  Temple  of  Luxor;  and  a  fuller  list 
of  Rameses  II  I. 's  conquests  at  his  Temple  Palace  of  Medinet  Habu 
(Sayce,  R.  P.,  New  Series,  vi,  pp.  31  ff.).  These  are  illustrated  by 
pictures  of  the  prisoners,  whose  racial  types  are  clearly  differei^ti- 
ated.  Those  that  concern  our  subject  are  the  leader  of  the  Shasu 
(Bedawin),  tlie  King  of  the  Kheta  (Hittites)  and  the  King  of  the 
Aniaur(Amorites).  Tablets  which  may  still  be  seen  at  the  Dog  River, 
north  of  Beyrout,  celebrate  tlie  victorious  march  of  Rameses  II. 
The  inscription  of  Merenptali  (1258-1235)  discovered  by  Petrie  in 
1896  at  Thebes,  is  interesting  as  containing  the  only  explicit  ref- 
erence to  Israel  yet  found  in  the  Egyptian  monuments.  Unfort- 
unately, it  appears  to  throw  no  light  on  the  date  of  the  Exodus. 
(For  discussion  of  tliis  point  with  references,  see  Paton,  The  Early 
History  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  p.  134.)  In  the  temple  at  Karnak 
are  133  names  of  towns  captured  by  Shishak  I.,  c.  92G  u.c.  (See  Con- 
der,  Q.  S.,  1893,  pp.  245  ff.)  In  the  course  of  this  raid,  wliich  took 
place  under  Relioboam,  he  seized  Jerusalem  and  carried  off  trcas 
ures  from  tlie  temple  and  palace.  (I  Kings  16,  25-28.)  Paton  notes 
(p.  194)  that  his  conquests  are  far  less  extensive  than  his  prede- 
cessor's, but  lie  brings  up  the  list  to  a  similar  fulness  by  enumer- 
ating every  obscure  village  he  visited. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  17 

strictly  biographical  or  historical  study,  i  Practically, 
however,  they  have  a  distinct  if  indirect  bearing  on 
the  subject  at  hand.  It  was  the  discovery  of  these 
precious  letters,  written  to  these  kings  by  their 
officials  and  allies  in  Palestine,  in  Syria  and  as  far 
East  as  Babylonia,  that  reawakened  in  the  Committee 
of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  the  zeal  for  ex- 
cavation. It  was  the  discovery  of  a  letter  at  Lachish 
made  by  myself  in  1892,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Fund — a  letter  belonging  to  the  same  general  cor- 
respondence— that  served  as  an  inspiration  in  all 
my  later  excavations.  It  is  the  remembrance  that 
from  Jebeil — the  ancient  home  of  the  Giblites — from 
Beyrout,  Tyre,  Acre,  Ascalon,  Gaza,  Megiddo, 
Gezer,  yes,  from  Jerusalem  itself,  were  posted 
the  letters  found  in  Egypt,  that  thrills  the  explorer 
to-day  when  he  visits  these  sites,  and  fills  him  with 
a  devouring  longing  to  unearth  with  the  spade  the 
Egyptian  answers  to  these  letters.  It  is  th^  knowl- 
edge that  during  an  obscure  period  in  Syrian 
history,  unillumined  by  light  from  Scripture,  writing 
was  common  in  the  land,  that  fires  him  with  the 
hope  that  a  local  correspondence  conducted  between 
these  sites,  as  well  as  between  others  not  mentioned 
among  the  150  names  of  the  Tell-el-Amarna  letters, 
may  somewhere  be  preserved  under  the  soil.- 

More   directly   concerned  with  a    sketch  of    the 
exploration  of  Palestine  is  the  Papyrus,  dated  from 

'  See  the  critical  text  of  Wincklcr;  also  Syria  and  Egypt  from 
tlie  Tell-t'1-Aniarna  Letters  by  Petrie ;  and  Condor's  Tiie  TcU-el- 
Amarna  Tablets. 

^  Two  more  tablets  were  found  l)y  Se'llin  at  Taanach,  in  11)03. 
Macalister  has  just  reported  another  from  Gezer. 


18  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

the  time  of  Rameses  II.,  usually  referred  to  as  the 
' '  Travels  of  a  Mohar. "  ^  In  it  are  described  the 
adventures  of  an  Egyptian  officer,  travelling  in  a 
chariot  from  the  vicinity  of  Aleppo  to  Megiddo,  and 
hence  to  Egypt  via  Joppa.  Under  the  title  of  ' '  The 
First  Traveller  in  Palestine,"  Conder  has  given  a 
valuable  topographical  notice  of  the  thirty-eight 
places  mentioned  in  Palestine  proper,  showing  that 
about  one-half  are  well-known  Biblical  sites.  The 
narrative  is  brightened  by  personal  touches,  as  when 
we  read  how  the  chariot  broke  down  in  a  precipitous 
pass  near  Megiddo,  how  the  horses  ran  away,  how 
the  poor  Mohar  was  afflicted  by  thirst  and  by  heat, 
and  how  finally  in  Joppa  he  was  able  to  repair  his 
vehicle. 

With  this  account  we  may  compare  the  later  papyrus 
dealing  with  another  visit  of  an  Egyptian  official  to 
Syria  about  1070  B.C. ^  Wen  Amen's  mission  was 
to  buy  timber  for  his  master,  the  priest-king 
Krikhor,  from  the  regions  of  Gebal,  probably  the 
Lebanon.  He  landed  at  Dor,  near  Mt.  Carmel, 
evidently  intending  to  proceed  immediately  to  Gebal, 
but  his  journey  was  delayed  for  nine  days  by  the 
theft  of  the  money  which  he  had  brought  to  pay  for 
the  timber.  On  resuming  his  voyage,  he  seized  a 
ship  of  the  Zakkala,  the  kinsmen  of  the  Philis- 
tines, whom  he  suspected  of  being  in  league  with 
the  thief,  and  partially  made  good  the  loss.  The 
king  of  Gebal  found  the    money  too  little,  and  it 

'  Chabas  and  Goodwin,  R.  P.,  ii,  pp.  107  ff, ;  Conder,  Q.  S.,  1876, 
pp.  74  fF. 

*  Eniian,  Ag.  Zeitschrift,  1900,  p.   1 ;  cf.  Paton,  pp.  KJS  ff. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  19 

was  only  after  tantalizing  negotiations,  minutely 
detailed  in  the  manuscript,  and  after  the  lapse  of 
six  months,  that  the  timber  was  piled  on  the  beach. 
But  whether  or  not  our  official  ever  succeeded  in 
transporting  it  to  Egypt  is  uncertain,  for  the  papy- 
rus account  breaks  off  suddenly.  Topographically 
it  has  not  the  same  interest  as  the  Travels  of  a 
Mohar,  but  it  is  a  rich  mine  of  folk-lore,  illustrat- 
ing the  state  of  the  country  before  the  days  of  Saul 
and  Samuel. 

That  much  detailed  information  in  regard  to 
Syria  and  Palestine  must  have  been  current  among 
the  Assyrians  can  be  inferred  from  the  accounts  of 
the  military  expeditions  of  their  kings.  The  com- 
mon soldiers,  followers  of  Tiglath  Pileser  L, 
Ashurnatsirpal  III.,  Shalmeneser  II.,  Tiglath  Pi- 
leser III.,  Sargon  II.  and  Sennacherib,  on  their 
return  home  doubtless  not  only  recounted  their 
adventures  to  their  wives  and  children,  bat  told 
many  a  tale  regarding  the  lands  they  had  conquered. 
From  the  exiles  of  the  northern  kingdom,  trans- 
ported into  their  midst  by  Sargon,  to  the  number  of 
27,000,  the  Assyrians  would  have  also  gathered 
much  information.  But  the  official  records  left  to 
us  are  by  no  means  as  explicit  as  those  of  the 
Egyptian  warriors.  Nowhere  do  we  find  an  ex- 
haustive list  of  conquered  places,  Hke  that  of 
Thothmes  III.  Nor  has  there  come  to  light  an  actual 
description  of  the  land  comparable  to  the  Travels 
of  a  Mohar.  Tiglath  Pileser  I.,  a  contemporary  of 
Saul  and  the  first  Assyrian  monarch  who  invaded 
Syria,  loft  but  brief  record  of  his   campaign.     Al- 


20  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

though  from  Ashurnatsirpal  III.,  who  began  to  reign 
about  the  time  that  Omri  ascended  the  throne  of 
Israel,  to  Sargon  II., ^  under  whom  the  northern 
kingdom  fell,  we  have  abundant  material  for  trac- 
ing the  advance  of  Assyrian  power  in  the  west,  the 
actual  geographical  information  furnished  by  any 
given  record  is  meagre.  The  account  of  Sennacherib's 
third  campaign — the  campaign  against  Judah,  in  the 
time  of  Hezekiah — is  richer  in  detail,  at  least,  as  far 
as  Palestine  proper  is  concerned.  ^  A  brief  resume 
of  this  will  serve  as  the  best  specimen  of  the  Assyrian 
records.  But  in  the  account  we  miss  the  touches  of 
local  coloring  which  enliven  the  story  of  a  later 
campaign  conducted  by  the  same  Sennacherib  against 
his  more  northern  enemies,  "whose  dwellings,  like 
the  nest  of  the  eagle,  the  king  of  birds,  were  located 
upon  the  pinnacle  of  Nipur,"  probably  Mt.  Taurus. 
Would  that  Sennacherib  had  considered  Palestine 
worthy  of  a  vivid  picture  like  the  following:  "At 
the  foot  of  Mt.  Nipur  I  placed  my  camp,  with  my 
followers  drawn  up  and  my  unrelenting  warriors, 
I,  like  a  strong  wild-ox,  took  the  lead.  Clefts,  ra- 
vines, mountain-torrents,  difficult  high  floods  in  a 
chair  I  crossed,  places  impassable  for  the  chair  I 
went  down  on  foot,  like  an  ibex  I  climbed  to  the 
high  peaks  against  them;  wherever  my  knees  had 

'  Annals  of  Ashurnatsirpal  III.  (see  Sayce,  R.  P.,  New  Series,  iii, 
pp.  128  ft.);  Black  Obeli.sk  of  Shalmeneser  II.  (see  Sclieil,  R.  P., 
New  Series,  iv,  pp.  30  £f.  Nimriid  Inscription  of  Tiglatli  Piiescr 
III.  (Strong,  K.  P.,  New  Scries,  pp.  115  ff.);  Annals  of  Sargon 
(Oppert,  R.  P.,  vii,  pp.  21  ff.). 

-  Taylor  Cylinder  of  Sennacherib  (Rogers,  11.  P.,  New  Series,  vi, 
pp.  80  ff.). 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  21 

a  resting-place  I  sat  down  on  a  rock;  waters  of  cold 
streams  for  my  thirst  I  drank.  Upon  the  peaks 
of  wooded  mountains  I  pursued  them. ' ' 

But  to  return  to  the  third  campaign.  Sennacherib 
marched  victoriously  through  Sidon,  Sarepta,  Achzib 
and  Acre  into  Philistia.  The  king  of  Ascalon,  after 
a  stubborn  but  vain  resistance,  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  later  carried  off  to  Assyria  with  all  his  family. 
The  kings  of  Moab  and  Edom  made  their  submission 
with  rich  presents.  At  Ekron  the  leaders  of  the 
home  party,  who  had  delivered  the  Assyrian  pris- 
oner Padi  to  Hezekiah,  offered  resistance,  relying 
on  help  from  the  south.  This  was  cut  off  by  Sen- 
nacherib, the  conspirators  against  him  were  slain, 
and  their  corpses  impaled  on  stakes  set  up  about  the 
city.  The  Assyrian  conqueror  next  turned  his 
attention  to  Hezekiah.  Forty-six  of  his  strong 
cities  were  taken  by  storm.  Among  these,  doubt- 
less, was  Lachish,  though  it  is  not  mentio'hed  by 
name  in  this  record.  However,  a  splendid  bas- 
relief,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  depicts  its  siege. 
Hezekiah  was  shut  up  in  Jerusalem  like  ' '  a  bird  in 
a  cage. "  Overwhelmed  by  the  "fear  of  the  bright- 
ness of  the  lordship ' '  of  Sennacherib,  he  purchased 
the  independence  of  his  city  with  30  talents  of  gold, 
200  talents  of  silver,  precious  stones,  curious  woods, 
couches  and  thrones  of  ivory,  the  women  of  his 
palace,  male  and  female  slaves,  and  by  surrendering 
Padi,  who  was  re-established  by  Sennacherib  as  gov- 
ernor of  Ekron.* 

'  For  the  campaigns  of  Aslmrbanipal  (the  second  king  after  Sen- 
naeheril)),  after  whoso  death  the  Assyrian  Empire  rapidly  broke 
up,  see  Smith,  R.  P.,  i,  pp.  o5  ff. 


22  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

The  above  brief  sketch  illustrates  the  extent  and 
character  of  information  relating  to  the  Holy  Land 
in  the  possession  of  the  ancient  peoples  of  Egypt 
and  Mesopotamia.  We  may  now  glance  rapidly  at 
the  references  of  Greek,  Roman  and  non-Biblical 
Jewish  writers. 

The  apparently  confused  nomenclature  of  Herod- 
otus is  explained  by  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
he  used  the  term  Syria  in  a  wider  and  in  a  narrower 
sense.  The  former  includes  Cappadocia,i  and 
possibly  Assyria,  as  he  states  that  the  Assyrians 
are  called  Syrians  by  the  Greeks.  ^  In  the  narrower 
sense  he  appears  to  limit  the  name  to  the  strip  of 
land  between  Cilicia  and  Egypt — in  other  words,  to 
employ  the  term  in  our  modern  sense.  ^  In  one  pas- 
sage Palestine  is  made  to  include  Phoenicia,  ^  but 
in  another  the  Syrians  of  Palestine  are  distinguished 
from  the  Phoenicians.^  That  he  visited  the  country 
is  proved  by  his  statement  that  he  saw  the  pillars 
erected  by  Sesostris  in  Palestine  ^ — perhaps  the 
tablets  inscribed  by  Rameses  II.  at  the  Dog  River; 
and  by  his  description  of  the  Temple  of  Hercules 
which  he  said  he  inspected  at  Tyre.'^  This  he 
found  ' '  richly  adorned  with  a  number  of  offerings, 
among  which  were  two  pillars,  one  of  pure  gold,  the 
other  of  emerald  shining  with   great  brilliancy  at 

'  Herodotus  I,  6,  and  72 ;  VII,  72.  '  VII,  03. 

*  III,  91 ;  VII,  89. 

*  "  The  Phoenicians  .  .  .  fixed  themselves  on  the  sea-coas*t. 
.  .  .  This  part  of  Syria  and  all  the  region  extending  from  hence 
to  Egypt  is  known  by  the  name  of  Palestine."  (VII,  89.)  Phoenicia 
is  distinctly  mentioned  in  II,  44. 

'  II,  104.  "  II,  106.  » II,  44. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  23 

night. ' '  But  the  land  seems  to  have  interested  him 
little  for  its  own  sake.  His  reference  to  places  are 
mere  scattered  illustrations  of  the  historical  narra- 
tive. For  example,  his  account  of  the  Temple  at 
Tyre  is  incidental  to  his  notice  of  the  cult  of  Her- 
cules ;  in  referring  to  the  proposed  raid  of  the  Scyth- 
ians on  Egypt,  he  notes  the  pillaging  of  the  Temple 
of  Venus  at  Ascalon ;  ^  the  twenty-nine  years'  siege 
of  Azotus  (Ashdod)  is  said  to  have  been  the  longest 
known  in  history ;  2  he  refers  to  the  battle  of  Necho  II. 
at  Magdolus,^  which  a  comparison  with  the  Biblical 
narrative  shows  to  be  Megiddo."*  There  is  no  evi- 
dence, however,  that  he  had  even  heard  of  Jerusalem. 
Necho,  after  the  battle  of  Megiddo,  is  said  to  have 
made  himself  master  of  Cadytis,  "a  large  city  of 
Syria. ' '  In  this  some  have  seen  a  reference  to  th\>, 
"the  Holy"  city.  But  in  another  passage  Cadytis 
clearly  indicates  Gaza,^  and  even  supposing  that 
Herodotus  refers  to  two  cities  of  the  same  name, 
the  Cadytis  taken  after  the  battle  of  Megiddo  may 
have  easily  been  Kadesh  on  the  Orontes,  passed  in 
the  course  of  Necho 's  campaign  against  Assyria.** 
This  silence  as  to  the  capital  of  the  Jewish  kingdom 
is  eloquent  of  the  early  ignorance  of  the  western 
world  in  regard  to  the  Hebrew  nation.  Herodotus 
wrote  about  the  time  Nehemiah  was  rebuilding  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  Would  that  curiosity  had  led 
him  to  visit  it! 

» I,  105.  ^  II,  157.  '  II,  159. 

'  II  Kings  32,  29 ;  cf.  II  Chron.,  35,  22.  Mil,  5. 

•  So  Paton,  Early  History  of  S.  and  P.,  p.  273.  Paton,  how- 
ever, .says  Herodotus  seems  to  i)lace  (erroneously)  the  battle  of 
Magdolus  at  Migdol  on  the  border  of  Egypt. 


24  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

The  Phoenicians,  however,  were  the  objects  of  his 
expHcit  admiration.  He  touches  with  enthusiasm  on 
the  excellence  of  their  ships ;  ^  on  their  circumnaviga- 
tion of  Africa ;  ^  their  skill  in  mining ;  ^  their  superi- 
ority over  all  other  workmen  employed  in  digging  the 
canal  of  Xerxes  across  Mt.  Athos ;  "*  their  coloniza- 
tion of  Boeotia;  s  the  introduction  by  them  of  writ- 
ing into  Greece.  0 

After  the  eastern  campaign  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  resulting  in  the  establishment  of  Greek  rule  in 
Syria  and  in  Egypt,  both  Syria  and  Palestine  be- 
came for  the  first  time  of  direct  importance  to  the 
Greeks.''  Two  of  Alexander's  generals  wrote  ac- 
counts of  his  expedition,  Ptolemy  Lagus,  first  Greek 
king  of  Egypt,  and  Aristobulus.  While  these  his- 
tories have  perished,  they  served  as  a  basis  for  a 
work  still  extant,  namely  Arrian's  history  of  Alex- 
ander. To  this  work,  written  under  Hadrian  and 
the  Antonines,  we  shall  refer  in  place.  "The  his- 
tory of  the  Jews,"  ascribed  to  the  Greek  Physician 
Hectseus,  of  Abdera,  who  apparently  also  accom- 
panied Alexander  on  his  victorious  march,  is  pre- 
served only  in  loose  quotations  in  Arrian's  history 
and  in  the  works  of  Josephus.  Most  important 
among  these  is  a  brief  passage — barely  200  words 

>  VII,  96.  '  IV,  44.  '  VI,  47. 

*  VII,  23.  *•  11,  49.  «  V,  58. 

'  The  Periplus  of  Scylax,  written  probably  during  the  latter  part 
of  Philip's  reign,  treats  this  subject  cursorily  in  Sec.  104.  In  the 
mutilated  form  in  which  it  has  survived  we  find  little  more  than  a 
catalogue  of  the  towns,  as  well  as  some  of  the  natural  features 
along  the  coast  of  S\Tia  and  Palestine.  (See  Geograplii  Gra;ci. 
Minores,  vol.  i,  ed.  Miiller,  1882.) 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  25 

long — describing  Jerusalem  and  its  Temple.  ^  In 
this  connection  we  may  refer  to  the  tract  ascribed 
to  Aristeas,  claiming  to  give  an  account  of  the  Mis- 
sion of  the  Author  sent  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  to 
Jerusalem  to  obtain  materials  for  preparing  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version  of  the  Scriptures.  The  fifth  chap- 
ter 2  contains  a  short  description  of  the  Holy  Land 
and  of  the  Holy  City,  the  chief  stress  being  laid 
upon  the  Temple,  its  high-priest  and  its  ritual.  The 
best  scholarship  has  pronounced  this  work  to  be  a 
forgery  by  some  Jew  of  Alexandria  in  the  interests 
of  national  glorification,  but  its  antiquity  is  demon- 
strated by  the  existence  of  quotations  in  Philo  and 
Josephus. 

Polybius,  the  Greek  historian,  who  wrote  about 
the  middle  of  the  second  century  B.C.,  illustrates  his 
accounts  of  the  movements  of  the  Seleucidan  armies 
by  a  wealth  of  allusions  to  places  in  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine. But  no  general  description  of  these  lands  is 
attempted,  at  least  in  the  extant  portions  of  his  his- 
tory. "We  are  tantalized  by  his  reference  to  the 
* '  sacred  town  ' '  of  Jerusalem :  ' '  Concerning  this 
city  we  have  much  more  to  say,  especially  of  its 
magnificent  Temple,  but  we  must  put  off  our  narra- 
tive till  another  opportunity. "  ^  Whether  the  op- 
portunity never  came,  or  whether  the  promise  was 
fulfilled  in  one  of  the  missing  parts  of  the  work  we 
can  only  guess,  but  we  gather  from  his  picture  of 
Seleucia  that  he  was  capable  of  giving  us  a  precious 

•  Jos.  against  Apion,  I,  22. 

'  Historia  de  legis  Divinaj  Translatione.     Fur  Euglisb  version, 
see  Pali'-stine  Pilgrims'  Text  Society,  vol.  xi. 
» XVI,  39. 


26  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

topographical  account  of  the  Holy  City.  ' '  The  site 
of  Seleucia,"  he  writes, ^  "and  the  character  of  the 
surrounding  regions  are  as  follows:  It  lies  on  the 
sea-shore  between  Cilicia  and  Phoenicia,  and  has  near 
to  it  a  very  lofty  mountain  called  Coryphaeus,  which 
on  the  west  side  is  washed  by  the  end  of  the  sea 
which  is  between  Cyprus  and  Phoenicia,  while  from 
its  eastern  slope  one  may  overlook  the  lands  of  Anti- 
ochia  Seleucia.  On  the  southern  foot-hills  Seleucia 
lies,  separated  from  the  main  ridge  by  a  deep  and 
impassable  ravine.  The  town  slopes  down  irregu- 
larly to  the  sea,  and  is  surrounded  for  the  most  part 
by  cliffs  and  precipitous  crags.  In  the  level  places 
along  the  part  facing  the  sea  stand  the  markets 
and  the  lower  town,  very  strongly  fortified.  In  the 
same  way  the  entire  body  of  the  town  has  been  pro- 
tected by  costly  walls,  and  finely  adorned  with 
temples  and  elaborate  buildings.  It  has  only  one 
approach  from  the  sea-coast,  artificially  cut  in  the 
form  of  a  stair,  interrupted  by  frequently  occurring 
turnings  and  irregularities." 

With  Strabo  we  find  ourselves  at  last  on  what  we 
may  venture  to  call  scientific  ground.  This  pioneer 
in  biographical  learning,  born  about  54  B.C.,  devotes 
a  chapter  of  his  work  to  a  systematic  treatment  of 
Syria.  2  It  seems  unlikely  that  this  was  based  on 
personal  observation.  No  one  who  had  explored  the 
land  even  superficially,  would  have  stated  that  the 
Lycus — the  short,  shallow  stream  known  to-day  as 
the  Dog  River — was  navigated  with  vessels  of  bur- 
den ;  3  that  the  parallel  chains  of  Libanus  and  Anti- 

i  V,  59.  *  Book  XVI,  chap.  ii.  »  Sec.  17. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  27 

Libanus  run  from  the  sea  toward  Damascus,  i.e., 
west  and  east ;  ^  that  the  Jordan  flows  into  the 
plain  between  these  two  chains ;  2  and  that  Joppa 
"is  said  to  command  a  view  of  Jerusalem. ' '  ^  How- 
ever, his  record  is  valuable  in  showing  the  limita- 
tions as  well  as  the  extent  of  geographical  knowledge 
current  in  the  Western  world  about  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era.  He  begins  by  giving  the 
boundaries  of  Syria — Cilicia  and  Mt.  Amanus  on  the 
north;  the  Euphrates  and  the  Arabian  Scenitse  on 
the  east;  Arabia  Felix  and  Egypt  on  the  south; 
and  the  Egyptian  and  Syrian  seas  as  far  as  Issus  on 
the  west.  Proceeding  with  systematic  detail  from 
north  to  south,  he  notes  the  main  divisions  of 
Commagene,  Seleucia,  Coele-Syria,  Phoenicia  and 
Judea;  dwells  on  the  historic  and  actual  condition  of 
the  chief  cities;  enumerates  the  rivers  and  moun- 
tains. Like  the  writers  of  all  later  ages,  he  is  struck 
by  the  mysterious  Dead  Sea,  confused  by  him,  how- 
ever, with  Lake  Serbonis.  He  notes  its  density, 
which  prevents  a  man  from  being  submerged  below 
the  waist;  mentions  its  asphaltic  properties;  and  is 
inclined  to  believe  in  the  ' '  common  tradition  of  the 
natives ' '  that  earthquakes,  eruptions  of  flames  and 
hot  springs  caused  the  lake  to  burst  its  bounds  and 
to  swallow  up  some  of  the  cities  of  which  Sodom  was 
the  capital.* 

But  of  especial  interest  is  his  strange  account 
of  Moses,  a  priest  of  the  Egyptians,  who,  with  a 
band  of  right-minded  followers,  occupied  Jerusalem, 
establishing  there  "no   ordinary    kind   of   govern- 

Sec.  10.  ''  Ibid.  2  Sec.  28.  *  Sees.  42-44. 


28  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

ment,"  based  not  upon  force  but  upon  the  attrac- 
tiveness of  the  monotheistic  religion  which  he 
taught.  The  site,  indeed,  was  easily  acquired  and 
kept.  Standing  on  a  rocky  place,  surrounded  by  a 
barren  and  waterless  district — though  itself  well 
watered — it  was  not  a  spot  to  excite  jealousy.  Al- 
lured by  his  eloquence,  the  neighboring  nations 
willingly  united  themselves  to  him.  God,  so 
preached  the  Leader,  must  be  worshipped  in  a  sacred 
shrine,  but  without  any  form  or  similitude.  Only 
those  who  practised  temperance  and  justice  might 
expect  good  or  some  gift  or  sign  from  the  Deity. 
"Such,"  says  Strabo,  "were  Moses  and  his  suc- 
cessors ;  their  beginning  was  good,  but  they  degen- 
erated. ' '  In  later  times  the  priesthood  was  occupied 
by  superstitious  persons  and  tyrants.  New  customs, 
such  as  circumcision,  were  introduced.  Ambition 
led  to  robbery.  A  large  part  of  Syria  and  Phoenicia 
was  ravaged.  The  title  of  priest  was  exchanged  for 
that  of  king.  During  a  season  of  civil  strife,  Pompey 
surprised  the  contestants,  destroyed  the  fortresses 
and  gave  orders  to  raze  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  ^ 

Like  Polybius,  Diodorus  Siculus,  who  wrote  early 
in  the  first  century  a.d.,  treats  geography  merely 
as  explanatory  of  historical  events.  For  example, 
he  shows  how  of  all  the  Phoenician  states  Sidon 
excelled  in  wealth.  Tripoli,  with  its  three  cities  called 
respectively  after  the  Aradians,  the  Sidonians,  and 
the  Tyrians,  had  the  greatest  dignity.     Tyre  was 

*  This  account  ia  included  in  Sees.  35-40.  His  brief  but  pictu- 
resque description  of  Petra  occurs  in  his  chapter  on  Arabia — Book 
XVI,  chap.  iv. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  29 

celebrated  for  the  mole  of  Alexander.  The  great 
town  of  Azotus  stood  the  longest  siege  in  history. 
Two  subjects,  however,  appeal  strongly  to  his  im- 
agination: the  Dead  Sea,  whose  strange  qualities 
he  details,  and  the  race  of  Arabs  called  Nab- 
ataeans,  whose  life  he  describes  at  length.  ^ 
Liberty,  he  says,  is  to  them  a  passion.  They 
name  as  their  native  land  a  solitude  which  has 
no  streams  nor  irrigating  fountains.  Solitude  thus 
becomes  to  them  a  refuge  from  the  enemy  in  search 
of  water.  This  the  marauder  cannot  find,  for  the 
native  Arabs  store  the  rain  in  huge  excavated  cis- 
terns, whose  small  mouths,  carefully  closed  up, 
reveal  no  traces  except  to  those  who  have  the  secret. 
Their  food  is  meat  or  milk,  and  natural  products, 
such  as  pepper  and  wild  honey.  It  is  a  law  among 
them  not  to  plant  corn  or  any  fruitful  shrub  nor  to 
build  a  house.  Whosoever  is  found  to  break  this 
law,  on  him  is  meted  out  capital  punishment.  On 
its  enforcement  their  independence  hangs.  For  only 
those  who  have  fixed  possessions  easily  yield  to  the 
more  powerful.  Some  of  them  rear  camels,  others 
sheep,  wandering  through  the  desert  in  search  of 
pasture.  Still  others  act  as  carriers,  transporting 
frankincense  and  myrrh  to  the  sea.  There  are 
other  Arab  tribes,  indeed,  so  says  Diodorus,  who 
practise  agriculture,  and  have  other  customs  in  com- 
mon with  the  Syrians,  but  not  even  they  live  in 
houses. 

Pliny's  brief  compendium  of  the  topography  of 
Syria  and  Palostine,  written  about  a.d.   78,  is  the 

'Book  XIX,  04;  cf.  also  Book  II,  48. 


30  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

first  serious  notice  of  these  countries  by  a  Roman 
author.  1  He  gives  the  length  of  Syria  between 
CiHcia  and  Arabia  as  470  miles,  and  its  breadth  be- 
tween Seleucia  Pieria  and  the  Euphrates  as  175 
miles.  He  thus  has  a  fairly  accurate  idea  of  the 
extent  of  ground  it  covers,  but  his  account  of  its 
divisions  appears  to  reflect  the  confused  condition  of 
the  geographical  nomenclature  as  known  to  the 
Romans  of  his  day.  His  Samaria  seems  to  include 
the  sea-coast  from  near  Gaza  to  Csesarea,  as  he 
assigns  to  it  the  maritime  towns  of  Ascalon,  Ashdod, 
Joppa  and  Csesarea,  as  well  as  the  interior  towns  of 
Neapolis  and  Sebaste.^  This  would  relegate  Judea 
entirely  to  the  interior,  and  so  it  is  placed  on  Menke's 
map  of  Palestine  according  to  Pliny.  ^  But  he  states 
elsewhere^  that  those  who  make  a  more  minute 
division  of  the  country  will  have  it  "  that  Judea  in- 
cludes part  of  the  maritime  coast. ' '  The  term  Syria 
is  used  sometimes  in  a  broad  sense  for  the  whole 
country,  and  sometimes  is  hmited  to  Syria  Antiochia. 
The  limits  of  Palestine  are  not  defined,  nor  is  it  clear 
whether  he  regards  it  as  a  main,  or  as  a  secondary, 
division,  such  as  Judea  or  Samaria.  But  the  detail 
is  richer  and  more  correct,  showing  a  distinct  ad- 
vance upon  Strabo.  He  names  in  order  the  chief 
features  of  the  coast — towns,  promontories  and 
rivers — from  the  Egyptian  border  to  the  Gulf  of 
Issus.  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus  are  correctly 
placed.     The  course  of  the  Jordan  is  traced  from  its 

'  Historia  Naturalis,  Book  V,  Sees.  13-19.     Barely  1,300  words 
long. 

2  Sec.  14.  '  Bibel-Atlas,  Pi.  VI.  '  Sec.  13. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  31 

source  at  Paneas  through  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret 
to  the  Dead  Sea.  Measurements  of  both  lakes  are 
given,  and  camels  are  said  to  be  able  to  float  on  the 
latter.  He  gives  a  list  of  the  toparchies  of  Judea, 
as  well  as  the  earliest  known  enumeration  of  the 
towns  of  the  Decapolis,  which  he  says  are  inter- 
penetrated and  surrounded  by  the  tetrarchies.  Jeru- 
salem he  dismisses  with  the  statement  that  it  is  the 
most  illustrious  of  all  Eastern  towns,  but  adds  later, 
in  a  comparison  pregnant  with  ignorance  of  the 
Holy  City,  that  Engedi  is  second  to  it  in  fertiHty 
and  its  groves  of  Palms!  The  only  division  of  the 
people  that  attracted  his  notice  was  the  sect  of 
the  Essenes,  whose  strange  life  he  describes  at 
length.  ^ 

Tacitus,  the  other  Roman  writer  who  claims  our 
attention,  published  his  history  under  the  Emperor 
Trajan.  His  neglect  to  profit  by  the  works  oi  Jo- 
sephus,  issued  during  the  reign  of  Domitian,  the 
second  emperor  preceding,  accounts  for  his  wild 
theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Jews,  and  is  ac- 
counted for  by  the  acrid  and  contemptuous  tone 
pervading  his  entire  notice  of  this  people  evidently 
considered  by  him  to  be  unworthy  of  critical  atten- 
tion. 2  He  condemns  them  as  a  people  of  un- 
bridled lust,  that  is,  among  themselves,  for  they 
have  no  dealings  with  strangers.  Their  religious 
rites  he  brands  as  dull  and  repulsive.  "Moses," 
he  says,  "prescribed  to  them  a  new  form  of  wor- 
ship, and  opposed  to  those  of  all  the  world  beside. 

'  His  brief  noti(H'  of  rahnyra  is  found  in  Sec.  21. 
^  History,  Book  V,  1-13. 


32  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

Whatever  is  held  sacred  by  the  Romans,  with  the 
Jews  is  profane ;  what  in  other  nations  is  unlawful 
and  impure,  with  them  is  permitted. "  ^  He  does  not 
take  the  trouble  to  sift  irreconcilable  reports  re- 
garding this  despised  people.  In  one  place  he  writes, 
' '  The  figure  of  the  animal ' '  (the  wild  ass) ,  ' '  through 
whose  guidance  they  slaked  their  thirst  and  were 
enabled  to  terminate  their  wanderings,  is  consecrat- 
ed in  the  Sanctuary  of  their  Temple."  ^  In  another 
he  declares,  ' '  The  Jews  acknowledge  one  God  only 
and  conceive  of  him  by  the  mind  alone,  condemning 
as  impious  all  who  with  perishable  materials,  wrought 
into  the  human  shape,  form  representations  of  the 
Deity.  That  Being,  they  say,  is  above  all  and  ever- 
lasting, neither  susceptible  of  likeness,  nor  subject 
to  decay.  In  consequence  they  allow  no  resemblance 
of  him  in  their  temples."  ^ 

Syria  is  merely  mentioned,  while  the  brief  notice 
of  the  land  of  the  Jews  serves  but  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  account  of  the  catastrophe  that  befell 
"that  celebrated  city,"  Jerusalem,  under  Titus. 
He  notes  the  boundaries,  correctly  characterizes  Mt. 
Libanus,  and  follows  the  waters  of  the  Jordan 
through  two  lakes  to  their  absorption  in  a  third, 
where  all  can  float  with  equal  ease  whether  swim- 
mers or  not,  mentioning,  however,  the  name  of  none 
of  the  three  lakes.  The  only  city  referred  to  is 
Jerusalem.  Its  almost  unassailable  position  and  its 
splendid  fortifications  are  dwelt  upon.  It  was  situ- 
ated, he  says,  on  two  hills  of  prodigious  height,  sur- 
rounded by  walls  with  towers  60  feet  high  where 

'  Sec.  4.  ^  Sec.  4.  ^  Sec.  5. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  33 

they  stood  on  the  hills  and  120  feet  high  where  they 
stood  on  the  low  ground.  "  The  city  is  enclosed  by 
the  first  fortifications  you  meet  with,  the  royal 
palace  by  the  second,  the  temple  by  the  inmost. ' '  ^ 
The  last-mentioned  walls  were  more  elaborate  and 
massive  than  the  rest,  enclosing  a  shrine  of  immense 
wealth.  2 

The  references  to  Syria  and  Palestine  in  Arrian's 
Expedition  of  Alexander,  written  in  the  second  cen- 
tury A.D.  under  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines,  are 
merely  incidental  to  the  narrative,  including  no 
general  descriptions  of  these  lands.  The  topography 
of  Tyre,  its  harbors,  the  construction  of  Alexan- 
der's mole,  are  treated  with  some  detail.  ^  A  few 
other  towns  are  mentioned,  but  of  these  Gaza  alone 
is  accorded  a  description.  "  Gaza  is  about  20  stadia 
distant  from  the  sea ;  the  approach  to  it  is  sandy  and 
difficult,  and  the  sea,  below  the  city,  is  everywhere 
shallow.  Gaza  is  a  large  city ;  it  stands  on  a  lofty 
mound,  and  is  girt  by  a  strong  wall.  It  is  the 
last  inhabited  place  as  one  goes  from  Phoenicia  to 
Egypt,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Desert. "*  Ar- 
rian's singular  geographical  indefiniteness  may  be 
shown  by  the  following  quotation :  ' '  Alexander 
made  an  expedition  into  Arabia,  into  a  mountain 
called  Anti-Libanus !  "  ^ 

In  his  Geographical  Narration,  Claudius  Ptolemy, 

'  Sec.  11.  »  Sec.  12. 

'  Book  II,  chap.  xvi.  *  Chap.  xxvi. 

'  Chap.  XX. — Even  more  brief  are  the  Oriental  references  of 
Quintus  Curtius,  in  regard  to  whose  date  nothing  is  known  beyond 
tiie  general  induf-tion  tiiat  lie  lived  in  one  of  the  early  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era. 


34  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

the  great  astronomer  of  the  second  century  a.d., 
takes  an  advance  step  in  the  field  of  topography.  ^ 
Strabo  and  Pliny  furnish  a  multitude  of  names,  fol- 
lowing each  other  in  general  order  as  from  north  to 
south,  or  grouped  in  a  given  district.  Ptolemy  de- 
veloped a  system  by  which  he  attempted  definitely 
to  fix  the  position  of  places.  His  method  of  com- 
puting latitude  and  longitude  is  crude,  and  errors 
often  occur,  but  Reland  points  out  that  he  alone  of 
the  ancient  authors  furnishes  the  material  for  con- 
structing a  geographical  table  of  Palestine.  Reland 
might  have  said  :  "He  alone  of  all  the  authors  before 
modern  times."  The  precious  notices  of  the  Ono- 
masticon,  that  last  echo  of  the  classic  period,  are  at 
best  lacking  in  precision.  Burchard's  attempts  to 
locate  sites  (c.  1283),  by  a  series  of  radiating  bands, 
and  Marino  Sanuto's  map  (1321),  with  its  network 
of  Httle  squares,  are  hardly  more  than  child's  play. 
Ptolemy,  indeed,  took  an  important  step  toward  a 
systematic  geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  but  few 
other  steps  were  taken  before  the  time  of  Reland 
himself,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  Ptol- 
emy's point  of  view  has  nothing  to  do  with  Scripture 
History.  About  twenty  towns  that  may  be  identi- 
fied with  BibHcal  sites  are  mentioned,  but  always 
under  their  Greek  or  Roman  names,  when  these  had 
displaced  the  Hebrew  nomenclature.  Bethlehem  and 
Nazareth,  of  prime  importance  to  the  Christian,  were 
of  no  interest  to  the  Greek  writer. 

So  much  for  the  purely  literary  works,  touching 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  35 

our  subject,  written  by  Greeks  and  Romans,  i  But 
before  passing  to  extra- Biblical  Jewish  literature,  we 
must  note  two  interesting  documents  of  Latin  origin 
but  of  a  somewhat  different  character.  The  so-called 
Antonine  Itinerary,  which,  however,  clearly  postdates 
the  Antonine  Emperors,  is  a  list  of  places  along  the 
military  routes  of  the  Roman  Empire,  with  dis- 
tances between  stations.  2  About  sixty  different 
towns  in  Syria  and  Palestine  are  indicated,  but  many 
are  repeated  as  they  occur  along  different  routes. 
The  Tabula  Peutingeriana  takes  its  name  from  Peu- 
tinger,  a  scholar  of  Augsburg,  who  was  once  its 
possessor.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  Tabula  Theo- 
dosiana,  owing  to  a  tradition  which  ascribes  its  com- 
pilation, or  its  revision,  to  Theodosius  the  Great. 
Internal  evidence,  however,  shows  that  it  had 
a  much  earlier  origin.  "The  Peutinger  Table," 
writes  Beazley,  "  was  undoubtedly  put  into  its  pres- 
ent shape  by  a  monk  of  Colmar  in  1265,  and  is  thus, 
as  we  have  it,  mediseval,  or,  at  least,  medisevaHzed. 
Yet  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  table  is 
essentially  a  map  of  the  Pagan  world — a  touch- 
stone, as  it  has  been  called,  of  ancient  geogra- 
phy ;  that  the  Christian  and  mediseval  accretions 
are  trifling  and  superficial;  and  that  even  in  our 
present  copy  we  have  a  pretty  faithful  reproduc- 
tion of  a  road-map  designed  to  give  a  view  of  the 

'  Note,  liowever,  the  brief  description,  in  hexameter  verse,  of  the 
IMncniciiin  coast,  witli  mention  of  the  chief  towns,  from  Gaza  to 
Tripoli  (hut  not  in  order),  in  the  Periegesis  of  Dionysius,  who 
prohahly  flourished  near  tlie  beginning  of  tlie  fourtli  century  a.d. 

^  Tlincrarinm  Antonini  Augusti  et  Ilii'rosolymitanum.  Edition  of 
Parthey  and  I'indar,  Berlin,  1847. 


3f>  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

Roman  Empire  and  the  outside  world,  about  the 
time  of  Augustus. ' '  ^ 

This  table  is  in  the  form  of  a  chart  about  twenty- 
two  feet  long  and  only  one  foot  high,  wound  on 
rollers.  2  At  first  glance  one  might  be  tempted  to 
assume  that  the  geographer  was  afflicted  by  a  com- 
plicated form  of  astigmatism.  Owing  to  the  great 
extent  of  ground  which  it  covers,  these  peculiar 
dimensions  have  demanded  the  reduction  of  the  seas 
to  narrow  strips,  and  the  exaggeration  of  latitude  at 
the  expense  of  longitude,  together  with  a  curious 
distortion  by  which  the  Adriatic  is  made  to  run  par- 
allel to  the  Mediterranean,  and  Palestine  runs  west 
and  east  as  a  continuation  of  the  North  African 
coast.  The  routes  are  indicated  by  zigzag  lines, 
something  like  chain-lightning.  The  smaller  towns 
are  represented  by  a  couple  of  little  houses  in  ele- 
vation; the  larger  towns — Rome,  Constantinople, 
Antioch,  and  Alexandria — by  medalHons  which  en- 
circle human  figures.  The  distances  between  towns 
are  written  along  the  zigzags.  In  the  part  con- 
cerned with  Syria  and  Palestine,  we  note  several 
errors.  For  example,  the  Jordan  appears  to  have  its 
source  in  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  though  it  is  rightly 
made  to  disappear  in  the  Dead  Sea.  But  this  is  also 
indicated  as  the  terminus  ad  quem  of  the  Hieromax, 
really  a  confluent  of  the  Jordan. 

Outside  the  pages  of  the  Bible  the  chief  Jewish 
authority  on  our  subject  during  this  early  period  is 
Josephus.     That  he  was  a  native  of  Jerusalem  and 

'The  Dawn  of  Modoni  Geography,  London,  1897,  pp.  380-81. 
^  For  facsimile,  see  Manuort,  Leipzig,  182t). 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  37 

prominent  in  the  struggle  against  the  Eoman  forces 
in  Galilee,  both  qualifies  and  disqualifies  him  for  the 
task  of  writing  soberly.  In  treating  of  his  beloved 
land  he  often  distorts  and  exaggerates  the  historical 
facts  to  the  end  of  glorifying  his  nation.  This  ten- 
dency has  brought  even  his  topographical  notices 
into  discredit  with  many  authorities.  But  one  of 
his  most  careful  students — Sir  Charles  Wilson,  who 
made  the  Ordnance  Survey  of  Jerusalem — thus  writes 
of  him:  "Every  new  discovery,  every  important 
plan  that  has  been  made,  has  served  more  and  more 
to  confirm  the  testimony  of  Josephus  and  to  give 
a  higher  idea  of  the  accuracy  of  his  local  knowl- 
edge," Wilson,  however,  discriminates  between 
the  passages  which  may  be  taken  as  authoritative, 
and  those  which  are  of  doubtful  accuracy,  noting 
that  while  his  descriptions  are  correct  in  plan,  or  in 
horizontal  dimensions,  he  exaggerates  heights;  that 
while  he  is  to  be  trusted  in  all  that  could  be  tested 
at  the  time  he  writes,  he  indulges  his  national  van- 
ity in  describing  the  buildings  overthrown  in  the 
Siege  of  Jerusalem,  ^ 

As  in  the  case  of  the  Bible,  most  of  his  informa- 
tion respecting  geography  is  merely  incidental  to  the 
narrative.  However,  we  find  at  least  four  deliberate 
descriptions  of  a  scientific  character:  the  first  of 
Galilee,  Samaria,  and  Judea;  the  second  of  Jericho 
and  environs;  the  third  of  Jerusalem;  the  fourth  of 
the  Temple, 2     Around  his  account  of  the  divisions 

*  Art.    Jerusalem,    Smith's  Diet,   of  the  Bible ;  ed.  of  1893,  p. 
'  Wurs,  III,  ill;   IV,  viii;    V,  iv;   V,  v. 


38  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

and  of  the  walls  of  his  native  city  a  great  contro- 
versy has  raged.  It  furnishes  a  capital  illustration 
of  radical  differences  among  authorities  in  their  in- 
terpretation of  the  same  historical  data.  But  as  an 
adequate  discussion  involves  the  opening  up  of  the 
burning  questions  of  Jerusalem  topography — the 
position  of  Zion,  the  site  of  the  Acra,  the  course  of 
the  second  wall — it  does  not  come  within  our  present 
scope.  1 

Although  the  two  Talmuds  encroach  on  the  ground 
of  the  next  lecture,  we  may  briefly  refer  to  them 
here.  The  chronological  range  of  the  Palestinian 
Talmud  is  from  the  end  of  the  second  to  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  a.d.,  that  of  the 
Babylonian  Talmud  is  from  about  the  year  190  to 
the  end  of  the  sixth  century.  Of  the  two,  the  former 
is  the  fuller  of  passages  touching  on  history,  topog- 
raphy and  archaeology.  The  geographical  refer- 
ences have  been  systematized  by  Neubauer.^  In 
his  preface,  he  points  out  that  these  are  always  con- 
ditioned by  the  dogmatic  discussions.  For  example, 
while  some  quite  obscure  towns  are  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  lives  of  the  Rabbis,  otliers  of 
intrinsic  importance  are  never  referred  to,  as  they 
have  no  connection  with  the  subject-matter.  Inter- 
esting light,  however,  is  thrown  on  the  Hebrew 
form,  at  the  period  of  the  Talmud,  of  the  names  of 
towns  even  now  inhabited.  The  village  near  Beit 
Jibrin,  called  to-day  Kefr  Dikkerin — a  name  found  in 
no  form  in  the  Bible — appears  as  pan  idd. 

'  For  a  full  discussion,  see  art.  Jorusalem,  Encyclop.  Biblica. 
*  La  Geographie  du  Talmud,  Paris,  18C8. 


THE  DAWN  OF  EXPLORATION  39 

It  seems  strange  to  find  Jerusalem  almost  entirely 
neglected.  The  walls  of  the  city  are  not  mentioned ; 
and,  of  the  gates,  only  the  Dung  Gate  is  referred 
to.  There  is  no  enumeration  of  Herod's  sumptuous 
edifices,  though  these  are  glanced  at  with  general 
admiration.  To  the  writers  of  the  Talmud  it  was 
more  important  to  record  that  there  wertf-480  Syna- 
gogues and  80  schools.  ^  Mount  Moriah — called  the 
Mountain  of  the  House — and  the  Temple  are  fully 
described  by  the  Talmudists,  who  are  not  always  in 
accord  with  Josephus,  preferring  sometimes  to  bor- 
row from  the  prophetic  descriptions  of  Ezekiel.^ 

Among  the  few  direct  geographical  indications  to 
be  found  in  the  Talmud  are  passages  concerning  the 
frontiers,  the  seas,  and  the  physical  characteristics 
of  the  three  districts — Judea,  Galilee,  and  Perea. 

'  La  Geographie  du  Talmud,  Paris,  1868,  pp.  134:  fif.         .^ 
*  An  English  translation  of  the  elaborate  account  of  the  Temple 
contained  in  the  tract  of  the  Mishnah  called  the  Middoth  or  Meas- 
urements is  given  in  the  Jerusalem  Volume  of  the  P.  E.  F.  Survey. 


LECTURE   II 

THE   AGE   OF  PILGRIMAGE 

With  the  present  lecture  we  have  reached  a  new 
phase,  indeed  a  unique  phase  of  Palestine  explora- 
tion. The  Egyptian  and  Mesopotamian  records  re- 
gard Syria  and  Palestine  simply  from  the  view- 
point of  conquest.  Josephus,  the  chief  non-Biblical 
Jewish  historian,  writes,  as  we  have  seen,  with 
the  motive  of  magnifying  his  country  before  the 
Romans.  The  Greek  and  Roman  geographers  bring 
in  a  scientific  element,  not  only  giving  broad  pres- 
entations of  the  land  as  a  whole,  but  arranging  their 
detail  in  systematic  form.  But  with  the  conversion 
of  the  Empire  to  Christianity  and  the  consequent 
decay  of  Paganism,  old  motives  are  lost,  new 
motives  are  born.  The  Western  world  had  lapsed 
into  a  second  childhood.  The  higher  classical  geog- 
raphy became,  to  use  Beazley's  phrase,  "a  deposit 
rarely  used,  a  legacy  generally  forgotten.  "^  But 
the  Dark  Ages  were  illuminated  by  pious  zeal.  Sacred 
topography  was  about  the  only  department  of  prac- 
tical geography  cultivated.  Long  and  difficult  pil- 
grimages were  taken  to  the  Holy  Land,  not  indeed 
in  the  quest  for  new  knowledge,  but  in  the  interests 

'  The  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography,  p.  3. 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIM AOE  4:1 

of  Faith.  Identification  became  the  motto:  not 
identification  for  learning's  sake,  but  as  a  stimulus 
to  religious  sentiment.  Attention  was  diverted 
from  the  mair  features  of  the  land  by  an  eager 
desire  to  examine  particular  places,  many  of  which 
were  of  no  intrinsic  importance,  but  which  were 
pregnant  with  historical  interest,  always  centring 
in  the  Bible.  Identifications  adopted  under  such 
conditions  must  necessarily  be  treated  with  caution. 
The  chief  thing  was  to  localize  a  particular  event, 
usually  indeed  on  the  basis  of  some  tradition,  but 
the  process  owed  nothing  to  the  critical  faculty,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  the  critical  faculty  was  un- 
developed. 

The  first  serious  attempts  at  identification  we 
owe,  however,  not  to  pilgrims,  but  to  two  men  who 
may  be  regarded  practically  as  natives  of  the  land. 
Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Csesarea,  who  died  a.d.  340, 
prepared  the  famous  Onomasticon.  This  was  trans- 
lated from  Greek  into  Latin  by  Jerome,  who  died  in 
Bethlehem,  a.d.  420,  after  a  sojourn  of  thirty-four 
years.  Jerome  travelled  extensively  in  the  Holy 
Land,  at  one  time  accompanying  the  Roman  matron 
Paula,  whose  journeyings  we  shall  follow  later. 

The  Onomasticon  ^  is  a  geographical  Dictionary 
of  Biblical  place-names,  consisting  of  brief  articles 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  mentioning  the  his- 
torical events  for  which  a  given  place  was  cele- 
brated, and  in  certain  cases  proposing  identifications 
with  actual  sites.     The  positions  of  such  sites  are 

'  See  the  Thesaurus  of  Ugolinus,  Tome  II;  and  Migue's  Patro- 
logia,  Vol.  23. 


42  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

often  indicated  by  distances,  and  sometimes  by 
direction  from  fixed  points.  Jerome,  who  enlarges 
upon  Eusebius's  list,  though  he  also  omits  some 
places  noted  by  the  latter,  names  in  all  about 
1,000  places,  but  he  attempts  the  identification  of 
about  300  only.  He  observes  that  some  Biblical 
names  have  remained  unchanged,  while  others  are 
altered  or  corrupted.  Some  of  the  identifications 
are  curiously  incorrect.  Perhaps  the  most  not- 
able mistake  is  found  in  the  vehement  rejection  of 
the  Samaritan  identification  of  Ebal  and  Gerizim 
with  the  mountains  on  either  side  of  Shechem, 
which  are  declared  to  be  too  far  apart  for  ' '  those 
who  blessed  and  those  who  cursed ' '  to  hear  each 
other.  The  scene  of  this  solemn  ceremony  is  placed 
near  Jericho.  The  actual  condition  of  the  land  is 
illustrated  by  notes,  mentioning,  inter  alia,  a  heathen 
temple  on  Mt.  Hermon,  worshipped  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Paneas  and  the  Lebanon,  and  various  mili- 
tary garrisons. 

Little  attention  was  paid  to  this  important  work 
by  the  pilgrims  and  other  writers  of  the  succeeding 
centuries.  For  many  of  its  correct  identifications 
were  substituted  worthless  traditions.  For  ex- 
ample. Bethel  was  by  several  authors  located  on  Mt. 
Gerizim  near  Shechem.  At  length  Burchard  of  Mt. 
Zion,  writing  about  the  year  1283,  pointed  out  the 
true  site,  referring  directly  to  the  authority  of 
Jerome.  1    But  neglected  as  it  was,  the  Onomasticon 

*  Excerpts  from  Jerome  are,  indeed,  inserted  in  Arculf's  ac- 
count by  his  editor  Adamnan,  c.  670,  but  the  material  is  treated 
uncritically. 


TEE  AOE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  43 

remained  for  almost  twelve  centuries  the  sole  schol- 
arly compendium  of  Biblical  geography.  ^  Adricho- 
mius,  in  1590,  using  Burchard's  notes  as  a  basis, 
presented  the  subject  in  systematic  form.  He  was 
followed  by  Bocharti,  1646,  and  Sanson,  1665.  But 
it  was  left  to  Hadrian  Reland,  1714,  to  produce  a 
work  which  Robinson  called  ' '  next  to  the  Bible  the 
most  important  book  for  travellers  in  Palestine."  2 
Reland 's  work,  however,  was  not  based  on  personal 
observation.  The  true  successors  of  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  were  Robinson  and  Conder — Robinson  who, 
for  modern  times,  initiated  a  true  scientific  method 
of  identification;  Conder  who,  more  than  all  other 
investigators,  developed  and  illustrated  its  princi- 
ples. We  may  quote,  then,  without  apology,  what 
these  modern  explorers  have  said  of  their  proto- 
types. 

'  *  That  important  work,  the  Onomasticon  (of  Eu- 
sebius and  Jerome)  .  .  .  ,"  says  Robinson, ^ 
"can  be  regarded  in  a  historical  respect  only  as  a 
record  of  the  traditions  current  in  their  day,  sanc- 
tioned indeed  by  the  judgment  of  these  fathers.  The 
names  thus  preserved  are  of  the  highest  importance, 
but  the  value  of  the  traditions  connected  with  them 
must  be  proved  in  the  same  manner  as  all  others, 
although  they  were  then  in  general  far  less  corrupted 
than  in  the  lapse  of  subsequent  centuries.  .  .  . 
The  Onomasticon,  with  all  its  defects  and  wrong  hy- 

'  The  classical  geographers  of  course  took  no  interest  in  Biblical 
identifications. 

^  Researches,  vol.  i,  p.  32  (edition  of  1856). 
» Ibid. 


44  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

potheses,  has  yet  preserved  to  us  much  of  the  tra- 
dition of  the  common  people,  and  contains  many 
names  of  places  never  since  discovered,  though  still 
existing. ' ' 

' '  The  list  of  300  names, ' '  writes  Conder,  ^  ' '  known 
to  the  authors  of  the  Onomasticon,  shows  a  very  com- 
plete knowledge  of  the  topography  of  the  Holy  Land 
as  it  existed  in  their  time;  and  the  large  majority 
of  the  sites  have  been  recovered,  many  being  identi- 
fied for  the  first  time  during  the  course  of  the  Sur- 
vey, 1872-82,  ...  It  is,  however,  to  be  re- 
marked that  the  distances,  as  a  rule,  except  along 
Roman  roads  with  mile-stones,  are  approximate  only. 
The  Onomasticon  cannot  be  received  as 
authority  for  identification,  because  its  suggestions 
are  in  many  cases  irreconcilable  with  the  Bible.  In 
many  cases  Jerome,  however,  appears  to  accept  Jew- 
ish traditions  which  are  sometimes  correct,  .  .  . 
The  greatest  value  lies  in  its  witness  to  the  survival 
of  the  Hebrew  nomenclature  of  the  country  of  the 
fourth  century,  even  more  perfectly  preserved  than 
now. ' ' 

"We  have  intimated  that  the  pre-Crusading  period 
is  characterized  by  a  unique  phase  of  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration— unique  by  virtue  of  the  narrowness  of  aim 
which  unifies  all  Western  travellers  for  the  800  years 
preceding  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Christian 
army,  and  which  thus  prevents  any  continuous  ad- 
vance in  real  exploration.  For  this  aim,  as  we  have 
said,  was  not  primarily  to  acquire  knowledge,  but  to 
stimulate  religious  feeling  by  contemplation  of  the 

'  Q.  S.,  189G,  pp.  229  flf. 


THE  AGE  OF  PILORIMAOE  45 

sacred  sites.  The  Monk  Bernard,  writing  late  in  the 
ninth  century,  throws  httle  more  Hght  on  the  Holy 
Land  than  does  the  pious  Bordeaux  Pilgrim  who 
journeyed  early  in  the  fourth.  Pilgrims  differ  in 
the  extent  of  ground  which  they  cover,  but  their  main 
theses  are  the  same  and  are  elaborated  in  much  the 
same  manner.  They  pass  from  Christian  shrine  to 
Christian  shrine,  with  their  eyes  closed  to  the  inter- 
vening country.  For  the  actual  state  of  the  land 
they  care  almost  as  little  as  for  its  classical  history. 
Antoninus  Martyr,  indeed,  denounces  the  wickedness 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  but  that  his 
motive  was  personal  rather  than  statistical  is  sug- 
gested by  his  finding  the  people  of  Gaza  respectable 
and  eminent  for  liberality  of  all  kinds,  being  * '  lovers 
of  pilgrims!" 

The  first  actual  narrative  of  a  Christian  pilgrim- 
age is  that  of  the  so-called  Bordeaux  Pilgrim,  i  made 
A.D.  333,  as  proved  by  the  references  to  the  Consul- 
ship of  Dalmatius  and  Zenophilus,  and  thus  soon 
after  the  Christian  Empire  of  Constantino  was  firmly 
established.  But  for  more  than  a  century  previously 
the  thoughts  of  the  Western  world  had  been  turned 
toward  Palestine.      In  a.d.  212  Alexander,  Bishop 

'  For  the  original  texts  of  the  pilgrim-narratives,  referred  to  in 
this  lecture,  see  the  editions  of  Tohler  and  Molinier,  Geneva,  1877- 
85  ;  for  tiie  English  translation  consult  the  puhlications  of  the  Pal- 
estine Pilgrims'  Text  Society,  edited  by  Wilson,  Condor,  Aubrey 
Ste\^rt,  etc.,  vols,  i-xiii.  These,  besides  earlier  references,  con- 
tain the  records  of  the  chief  travellers,  from  the  Bordeaux  Pil- 
grim, 33.'5,  to  Felix  Fabri,  1483,  including  the  Moslems,  Mukaddasi 
and  Nasir-i-Khusrau.  Our  quotations  follow  tlicse  translations,  and 
to  the  notes  and  introductions  we  are  indebted  for  many  sugges- 
tions. 


46  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

of  Cappadocia  (though  probably  of  Western  origin), 
visited  Jerusalem  as  a  pilgrim,  but  remained  as  its 
Bishop.  1  By  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century, 
so  Eusebius  tells  us,  Christians  came  up  to  the  Holy 
City  from  all  parts  of  the  earth. 2  The  alleged 
discoveries  of  that  exploring-pilgrim,  Helena,  the 
mother  of  Constantino,  who  claimed  to  have  found 
Calvary,  the  Tomb,  and  the  True  Cross,  gave  a  great 
stimulus  to  a  habit  already  formed. 

Like  many  of  his  successors,  the  anonymous  Bor- 
deaux Pilgrim  begins  his  account  by  telling  how  he 
got  to  Palestine  from  his  native  land.^  At  first  we 
find  a  mere  list  of  places  and  distances,  following 
closely  the  Antonine  Itinerary,  interspersed,  here 
and  there,  with  brief  geographical  and  historical 
comments.  He  takes  the  land  route  to  Constantino- 
ple via  Mediolanum  (Milan)  and  Singidunum  (Bel- 
grade) .  The  detailed  character  of  the  itinerary  may 
be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  between  Bordigala 
(Bordeaux)  and  Constantinople  it  names  208  changes 
and  90  halts.  ^  From  the  Byzantine  capital  his  route 
proceeds  through  Asia  Minor  to  Antioch,  and  thence 
to  the  coast,  which  it  follows  as  far  as  Csesarea  Pal- 
estina,  south  of  Carmel.  Here  the  pilgrim  strikes 
inland,  visiting  Stradela  (Jezreel) ,  Scythopolis  (Beth- 

'  In  Jerome's  Dc  Viris  lUustribus,  c.  62  (Migne,  P.  L.,  Tome  23, 
p.  674). 

^Eusebius  Demonstr.  Evang.,  VI,  18  (Migne,  Tome  22,  p.  458). 
For  references  to  the  names  of  pilgrims,  see  Beazley's  Dawn  of 
Modern  Geography,  p.  54. 

'P.  P.  T.,  vol.  i. 

'The  summing  up,  after  Constantinople  is  reached,  gives  230 
changes  and  112  halts. 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  47 

shean)  and  Neapolis  (Shechem).  His  passing  within 
a  day's  journey  of  Nazareth  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
places  of  prime  importance  to  all  later  pilgrims  but 
apparently  of  no  interest  to  him,  is  at  least  note- 
worthy. Up  to  this  point,  to  the  list  of  the  sites 
visited  have  been  appended  brief  notes,  such  as  after 
the  mention  of  Sarepta,  ' '  Here  Helias — Elijah — went 
up  to  the  widow  and  begged  food  for  himself ;"  or 
concerning  Jezreel,  "Here  reigned  King  Achab  and 
here  Helias  prophesied;  here  is  the  field  in  which 
David  slew  Goliath."  But  with  NeapoHs — Shechem 
— the  account  takes  the  narrative  form,  teeming 
with  Scriptural  allusions,  and  this  is  preserved,  with 
more  or  less  continuity,  as  far  as  Hebron.  Our  pil- 
grim notes  Jacob's  well  near  Sichar,  Mt.  Gerizim, 
and  Bethar — or  Bethel — twelve  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
salem. The  description  of  the  Holy  City  is  brief, 
containing  about  800  words.  The  topography  is 
treated  incidentally,  as  the  pilgrim  tells  how  he 
passed  from  site  to  site,  but  it  is  quite  possible  to  fol- 
low his  various  routes.  Leaving  the  city  near  the 
Temple-site  he  passes  along  the  southern  slopes 
above  Siloam  to  the  House  of  Caiphas  on  the  part  of 
Zion  without  the  walls.  From  his  description  we 
gather  that  the  city  followed  the  lines  of  Hadrian's 
Aelia,  which  are  practically  the  lines  of  Modern  Jeru- 
salem. Re-entering  by  the  gate  of  Zion,  at  or  near 
the  site  of  the  present  Bab-Neby  Daud,  he  notes  on 
the  right  the  ruins  of  Pilate's  praetorium  and  on  the 
left  the  church  erected  by  Constantino  on  the  sup- 
posed site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre;  then  passing 
through    the   eastern   gate — now   the   gate  of   St. 


48  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

Stephen — he  comes  through  the  Kedron  Valley  to 
the  Mt.  of  Olives.  Bethany,  Jericho,  the  Jordan, 
the  Dead  Sea,  were  visited  in  one  excursion  from 
Jerusalem;  Bethlehem  and  Hebron  in  another.  He 
returned  to  Caesarea  by  Lydda  and  Antipatris,  and 
thence  went  home  via  Constantinople.  Thus,  with 
the  exception  of  Nazareth  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
the  Bordeaux  Pilgrim  visited  most  of  the  sites  seen 
by  the  modern  traveller  who  takes  the  short  tour. 
The  Latin  style  shows  much  poverty  of  language; 
the  phrase  "  of  wondrous  beauty,"  which  occurs  four 
times,  seems  to  exhaust  his  powers  of  expressing 
admiration. 

Apart  from  the  topographical  allusions,  the  chief 
interest  of  the  account  lies  for  the  critics  in  the  ab- 
sence of  reference  to  minor  Christian  traditions  and 
relics  with  which  the  writings  of  the  sixth  and  all 
succeeding  centuries  are  so  overladen.  The  column 
of  Flagellation  and  the  Palm,  from  which  were  cut 
the  branches  for  the  Triumphal  Entry,  are  indeed 
mentioned,  but  we  read  nothing  of  the  Cross  and  its 
adoration,  the  lance,  or  the  crown  of  thorns.  That 
too  much  stress  should  not  be  laid  on  any  particular 
omission  is  suggested  by  the  Pilgrim's  silence  re- 
garding the  Mt.  of  Olives  as  the  place  of  Ascension, 
an  identification  well  established  some  twenty  years 
before  his  journey.  Here,  according  to  Eusebius,i 
Christians  flocked  from  all  parts  of  the  earth  to  pay 
their  adoration  at  the  spot  where  Christ  ascended 
into  Heaven.  It  may  be  legitimately  inferred,  how- 
ever, that  relic-worship  had  not  in  the  fourth  cen- 

'  Demonstr.  Evang.,  VI,  18;  written  about  a.d.  315, 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  49 

tury  assumed  the  paramount  importance  which  at- 
tached to  it  in  the  sixth.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
find  record  of  traditions  connected  with  Jewish  his- 
tory, such  as  the  crypt  in  which  Solomon  tortured 
devils,  and  the  chamber  in  which  he  wrote  the  Book 
of  "Wisdom.  We  note,  too,  with  interest,  his  men- 
tion of  two  statues  of  Hadrian  within  the  Temple 
Area,  which  was  not  sanctified  by  a  church  till  Jus- 
tinian's time. 

In  pleasing  contrast  to  the  bald  style  of  the  Bor- 
deaux Pilgrim's  Guide-Book  are  the  two  accounts 
which  we  have  of  the  sojourn  in  the  Holy  Land  of 
the  wealthy  and  famous  Paula,  Matron  of  Rome, 
who  left  that  city  in  a.d.  382.  One  is  the  descrip- 
tion of  her  two  years'  pilgrimage,  written  many 
years  later  by  her  friend  and  master,  Jerome,  who 
appears  to  have  accompanied  her  for  a  part  of  the 
time,  and  who  must  be  held  responsible  for  the  geo- 
graphical allusions  in  both  narratives;  the  other  is 
her  own  letter  from  her  new  home  in  Bethlehem  to 
a  friend,  Marcella,  urging  this  Roman  lady  to  join  her 
in  a  tour  of  the  Holy  Land.  ^  Jerome  gives  a  graphic 
account  of  her  embarkation  with  her  daughter  Eusto- 
chium,  of  her  anguish  at  parting  with  the  other  chil- 
dren, of  her  resolve  not  to  look  back  at  them  as  the 
ship  sailed  off,  though  her  little  son  Lexotius  pite- 
ously  stretched  forth  his  hands  from  the  shore. 
After  stopping  at  Cyprus,  where  she  left  substantial 
remembrances  to  the  monasteries,  she  proceeded  to 
Antioch.  Again  striking  the  sea-coast,  she  followed 
this  to  Joppa,  with  a  short  detour  to  the  plain  of 

'  I*.  l\  T.,  vol.  L 


50  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

Esdraelon.  After  exploring  Jerusalem  and  making 
the  ordinary  tourist  excursions  to  the  Jordan  district 
and  to  Hebron,  she  started  north  on  an  extended 
trip  in  Galilee  and  Samaria.  Returning  to  the 
Holy  City,  she  travelled  to  Egypt  by  land,  passing 
Lachish  and  Gaza.  Her  return  journey  to  Bethle- 
hem was  made  by  sea  as  far  as  Gaza.  Jerome's 
account  is  breezy  and  popular,  his  aim  being  rather 
to  extol  Paula's  piety  and  enthusiasm  rather  than 
to  give  a  description  of  the  places  visited.  "Time 
rather  than  matter  would  fail  me, ' '  he  says,  "  if  I 
wished  to  detail  all  the  places  to  which  the  devout 
Paula  wandered  with  incredible  faith. ' '  He  empha- 
sizes the  rapidity  of  her  movements,  telling  how  she 
journeyed  "with  so  great  swiftness  that  you  would 
think  her  a  bird."  His  style  catches  the  infection. 
He  explains  his  cursory  treatment  of  the  route 
through  Syria  and  Northern  Phoenicia  by  stating 
that  he  has  no  desire  to  mention  any  but  Biblical 
sites.  Of  these,  indeed,  some  sixty  are  noted  in 
the  entire  narrative,  including,  besides  cities  of  im- 
portance, such  minor  places  as  the  two  Bethorons, 
Nob,  Ajalon,  Engedi,  Tekoa,  and  Adummim.  The 
references  to  ' '  holy  places ' '  and  relics  are  hardly 
more  numerous  than  those  of  the  Bordeaux  Pilgrim, 
including  only  the  Cross,  the  Tomb,  its  rolling  stone, 
the  column  of  scourging,  the  church  on  Mt.  Zion, 
and  the  place  where  the  Holy  Ghost  descended  on 
the  disciples. 

After  her  two  years  of  wandering,  Paula  settled  in 
Bethlehem,  where,  until  her  death,  in  a.d.  404,  she 
passed  her  time  in  good  deeds,  founding  monasteries 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  51 

and  caring  for  pilgrims.  From  this  quiet  retreat 
she  and  her  daughter  Eustochium  wrote  to  their 
friend  Marcella,  said  to  have  been  the  first  Roman 
Lady  to  embrace  the  monastic  life.  In  this  letter 
we  find  drawn  a  contrast  between  the  worldliness, 
etiquette,  and  backbiting  which  had  crept  into  Chris- 
tian society  in  Jerusalem  and  the  peaceful  life  of 
Bethlehem.  "In  the  village  of  Christ,"  wrote  the 
Roman  ladies,  **all  is  rusticity  and,  except  for 
psalms,  silence.  Whithersoever  you  turn  yourself, 
the  plowman,  holding  the  plow-handle,  sings  Alle- 
luia; the  perspiring  reaper  diverts  himself  with 
psalms;  and  the  vine-dresser  sings  some  of  the 
songs  of  David  while  he  trims  the  vine  with  his 
curved  knife.  These  are  the  ballads  of  this  country, 
these  are  the  love-songs,  as  they  are  commonly 
called;  these  are  whistled  by  the  shepherds  and  are 
the  implement  of  the  husbandmen.  Indeed,  we  do 
not  think  of  what  we  are  doing,  or  of  how  we  look, 
but  see  only  that  for  which  we  are  longing. ' '  ^  The 
trip  which  it  is  proposed  to  take  through  the  country 
is  sketched  with  persuasiveness  and  poetic  feeling. 
By  a  daring  license  of  speech  the  writers  promise 
Marcella  that  she  shall  witness  the  very  deeds  of 
the  Saviour.  "We  shall  come  to  the  Sea  of  Gen- 
nesareth,"  they  say,  "and  shall  see  the  five  and 
four  thousand  men  in  the  desert  fed  with  five  and 
seven  loaves.  .  .  .  We  shall  also  see  Caphar- 
naum,  that  familiar  witness  of  the  miracles  of  our 
Lord,  and  likewise  the  whole  of  Galilee.  And  then, 
accompanied  by  Christ,  when  we  have  returned  to 

*  Letter  of  Paula,  etc.,  VI. 


52  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

our  grotto,  after  passing  Silo  and  Bethel,  and  the 
other  places  in  which  the  banners  of  the  church  have 
been  raised,  ...  we  will  sing  constantly,  we 
will  often  weep,  we  will  pray  without  ceasing,  and 
wounded  by  the  dart  of  our  Saviour,  we  will  repeat 
together,  '  I  have  found  Him  whom  my  soul  sought 
for,  I  will  hold  him  fast  and  will  not  let  him  go ! '  "  ^ 
With  this  jubilant  note  ends  the  letter  of  the  Roman 
ladies.  Great  must  have  been  Marcella's  sense  of 
duty  to  her  Roman  poor,  as  it  was  strong  enough  to 
resist  the  appeal.  This  not^  rings  as  clear  and  true 
to-day  as  it  rang  fifteen  centuries  ago.  The  ac- 
counts of  Paula's  wanderings  tell  us  little  in  regard 
to  the  land  of  her  day  that  we  cannot  gather  from 
the  Onomasticon,  but  they  are  precious,  indeed,  as 
witnesses  to  the-  spiritual  ideals  which  inspired  the 
many  pilgrims  who  came  in  contact  with  Jerome.  2 

The  anonymous  lady  of  rank,  whose  generally 
accepted  identification  with  St.  Silvia  of  Aquitaine 
we  shall  assume,  and  whose  journeyings,  wider  of 
extent  indeed  than  Paula's,  show  the  same  pious 
zeal,  does  not  mention  Jerome.  But  her  account, 
as  it  has  come  down  to  us,  is  fragmentary  and  it  is 
not  safe  to  assume  that  she  did  not  know  him. 
From  internal  evidence  it  has  been  gathered  that 
her  travels  were  taken  somewhere  between  the  years 
A.D.  379  and  388.  ^     The  manuscript  begins  in  the 

•  VIII. 

-  For  the  influence  of  Jerome  in  attracting  pilgrims  to  the  Holy 
Land,  and  their  great  increase  during  this  period,  see  Beazley's 
Dawn  of  Modern  Geograpliy,  pp.  81,  82  and  87. 

■'  See  P.  P.  T.,  vol.  i ;  Introduction  hy  Dr.  Hernard;  also  Beazley. 
chap,  ii,  ])p.  73-80. 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGUIMAQE  63 

middle  of  a  sentence  just  as  Silvia  has  gone  through 
the  Pass  of  Winds,  and  gazing  across  the  plain 
where  the  Israelites  encamped,  sees  at  the  other  end 
the  splendid  roseate  mass  of  Sinai.  Crossing  the 
plain  she  spends  Saturday  night  at  the  monastery, 
and  on  Sunday  makes  the  ascent  of  the  Mountain. 
' '  These  mountains, ' '  she  says,  ' '  are  ascended  with 
infinite  labor,  because  you  do  not  go  up  gradually  by 
a  spiral  path  (as  we  say  "like  a  snail  shell ")  but  you 
go  straight  up,  as  if  up  the  face  of  a  wall,  and  you 
must  go  straight  down  each  mountain  until  you 
arrive  at  the  foot  of  that  central  one  which  is  strictly 
called  Sinai.  ...  At  the  fourth  hour  we  arrived 
at  the  peak  of  Sinai,  the  Holy  Mountain  of  God 
where  the  Law  was  given.  ...  In  that  place 
there  is  now  a  church — not  a  large  one,  because  the 
place  itself,  the  summit  of  the  Mount,  is  not  large, 
but  the  church  has  in  itself  a  large  measure  of  grace. 
As  I  was  passing  out  of  the  church  the 
priest  gave  us  gifts  of  blessing  from  the  place — that 
is,  gifts  of  the  fruits  grown  on  the  mountain.  For 
though  the  Holy  Mount  of  Sinai  itself  is  all  rocky, 
so  that  it  has  not  a  bush  on  it,  yet  down  near  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  .  .  .  there  is  a  little  plot 
of  ground;  here  the  holy  monks  diligently  plant 
shrubs  and  lay  out  orchards  and  fields;  and  hard  by 
they  place  their  own  cells,  so  that  they  may  get,  as 
if  from  the  soil  of  the  mountain  itself,  some  fruit 
which  they  may  seem  to  have  cultivated  with  their 
own  hands.  "1 

This  quotation    from    Silvia's    careful    if   some- 

'P.  r.  T.,  vol.  i,  S.  Silvia,  pp.  13-14. 


54  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

what  prolix  account  may  serve  to  indicate  how 
much  valuable  material  must  have  perished  with 
the  loss  of  the  first  part  of  her  manuscript,  which 
doubtless  dwelt  upon  Jerusalem  with  the  same  ful- 
ness of  detail,  a  fulness  not  attained  by  any  other 
Western  writer  before  the  Crusades.  Probably  other 
parts  of  the  land  had  also  been  described  at  length. 
We  read  that  after  her  return  to  Jerusalem,  via 
Egypt,  she  made  an  excursion  to  Mt.  Nebo,  where 
she  was  shown  the  grave  of  Moses,  and,  later,  an- 
other to  the  land  of  Ausitis  or  Uz.  A  traveller, 
whose  enthusiasm  for  the  Bible  led  her  to  cross  the 
Jordan  in  search  of  the  place  where  Job  once  lived, 
would  surely  not  only  have  visited  but  dwelt  upon 
all  the  sites  made  memorable  by  the  life  of  Christ. 
Moreover,  she  had  ample  leisure  for  a  thorough  ex- 
amination, as  we  learn  that,  when  she  finally  left 
Jerusalem  for  home,  she  had  been  in  the  country 
three  years.  A  further  indication  of  the  explicit- 
ness  with  which  she  probably  described  the  Holy 
City  is  shown  by  her  devoting  the  last  half  of  the 
portions  of  the  narrative  preserved  to  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  services  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre. 

On  her  home  journey  she  made  a  wide  detour 
from  Antioch,  crossing  the  Euphrates  into  Meso- 
potamia, where  she  was  shown  the  Memorial  of 
St.  Thomas  at  Edessa,  and  the  house  of  Abrani 
at  Haran.  Everywhere  Silvia  was  treated  as  a 
person  of  consideration.  Her  letter,  moreover, 
shows  a  knowledge  of  the  world,  a  breadth  of 
view,    which   differentiate    her   from   the   ordinary 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  55 

pilgrim.  1  While  she  puts  down  the  legends  and 
fables  told  her,  she  sees  things  as  they  are,  and 
records  carefully  what  she  sees.  The  manuscript 
containing  these  precious  fragments  remained  un- 
known till  1883,  when  the  learned  Italian  librarian 
Gamurrini  discovered  it  in  Arezzo,  Tuscany.  It 
is  quite  conceivable  that  a  similar  chance  may  have 
preserved  in  some  obscure  convent  a  complete  manu- 
script. That  its  discovery  would  materially  add  to 
our  knowledge  of  Palestine,  as  it  was  late  in  the 
fourth  century,  has,  I  hope,  been  sufficiently  shown. ^ 
The  continued  popularity  of  pilgrimage  in  the  fifth 
century  is  evidenced  by  many  historical  references, 
but  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Onomasticon, 
whose  editor,  Jerome,  died  in  a.d.  420,  only  one 
document  of  any  geographical  importance  has  been 
preserved.^  This  is  the  Epitome  of  Saint  Eucherius 
usually  identified  with  that  Eucherius  who  was  Bishop 
of  Lyons  from  a.d.  434  to  450.*  The  author,  who 
treats  only  of  ' '  certain  Holy  Places, ' '  does  not  claim 

'  "  Had  all  our  accounts  been  written  by  persons  of  lier  own 
class,  who  had  enjoyed  more  of  the  profane  learning  and  worldly 
enlightenment  lacking  in  many  of  the  pilgrims,  we  should  have 
had  a  very  different  light  on  the  path  we  are  following."  (Beazlcy, 
p.  79.) 

^  For  a  contemporary  account  of  the  customs  and  religion  of  the 
Arabs,  and  of  the  life  led  by  tlie  monks  of  Mt.  Sinai,  see  "  Nili 
Monachi  Eremitaj  Narrationes  quibus  caides  Monochorum  Montis 
Sinai  et  captivatis  Theoduli  ejus  filii  describuntur."  (Narratio 
Tertia  (c.  a.d.  400)  found  in  Migno's  Patrologia  Latina,  Vol.  71), 
cols.  483  ff.) 

'  Descriptio  Parrochiae  Ilicrusalem  (c.  4G0)  is  nierciy  a  list  of  tlie 
churches  sul)ject  to  the  four  Metropolitan  Sees  of  the  I'atriarcliate 
of  .Terusalem.     (See  Beazley,  p.  93.) 

«  V.  P.  T.,  vol.  ii. 


56  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

to  write  from  personal  observation,  but  "what  he 
had  learned  either  by  conversation  or  by  reading ' ' 
had  been  carefully  digested,  and  was  clearly  expressed 
in  a  short  letter  containing  barely  900  words,  to  the 
Priest  Faustinus.  The  author  has  almost  nothing 
to  say  about  relics.  His  description  of  Jerusalem, 
his  account  of  the  course  of  the  Jordan,  and  his 
mention  of  a  few  other  places  in  the  Holy  Land, 
which  he  says  extends  from  Dan  to  Beersheba,  show 
an  elementary  instinct  for  topography.  Indeed,  this 
brief  tract  is  invaluable  to  a  study  of  the  ancient 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  Mt.  Zion,  he  states,  was  at  the 
time  included  in  the  city,  though  it  used  to  be  out- 
side. Siloam,  however,  was  extra  mural.  Here  are 
clews  to  help  in  dating  the  famous  mosaic,  serving 
as  the  floor  of  a  church  in  Madeba  beyond  Jordan, 
which  was  discovered  in  1897.  ^  Worshippers  in 
this  early  Byzantine  church  knelt  upon  a  map  of  the 
Holy  Land,  pictured  in  white  and  colored  tesserae. 
Visitors  to-day  find  it  in  some  places  destroyed,  in 
others  much  mutilated,  but  still  preserving  many 
precious  details,  especially  in  regard  to  Jerusalem. 
LTnfortunately,  in  the  place  where  Siloam  should  oc- 
cur, the  tesserae  are  wanting,  but  the  orientation  of 
the  south  wall,  at  the  point  where  it  breaks  off,  does 
not  favor  the  inclusion  of  the  Pool,  while  Zion  is 
plainly  within  the  city  limits.  As  we  know  from 
Antoninus  Martyr  that  Siloam  was  included  in  the 
city  by  Eudocia,  who  resided  in  Jerusalem  449-461, 

'  See  eicaTations  at  Jerusalem  by  Bli.<?  and  Dickie,  p.  308 ;  also 
Jerusalem  d'apres  la  Mosaique  de  Madaba  by  R.  P.  Lagrange, 
Ri-viif  Biblique,  July,  1S97. 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  57 

the  Mosaic  appears  to  antedate  her  visit.  It  must 
post-date  the  visit  of  the  Bordeaux  Pilgrim,  in  whose 
time  the  Zion  wall  referred  to  by  Eucherius  was  not 
in  existence. 

In  contrast  to  the  brief  records  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, the  accounts  which  have  come  down  to  us  from 
the  age  of  Justinian  are  rich  indeed.  About  530 
we  have  the  anonymous  Breviary,  or  Short  Descrip- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  the  tract  of  Theodosius  deal- 
ing with  the  Holy  Land  in  general.  About  560 
were  written  the  full  accounts  of  Procopius  of  Cses- 
area,  relative  to  the  buildings  of  Justinian,  and  the 
Itinerary  of  Antoninus  Martyr,  i  This  century  is 
remarkable  for  the  development  of  the  taste  for 
relics,  practically  ignored  by  Eucherius.  The  Brev- 
iary enumerates  the  reed,  the  spear,  the  sponge,  the 
cup,  etc.,  shown  as  the  very  articles  connected '"with 
our  Lord's  Passion.  Theodosius  describes  the  im- 
prints left  by  His  countenance,  hands,  and  arms  on 
the  Pillar  of  Scourging,  while  Antoninus  Martyr  an- 
ticipates the  habits  of  the  modern  traveller  by  scratch- 
ing the  names  of  his  parents  on  the  couch  of  Christ  at 
Cana.  After  these  writers,  relics  and  legendary  sites 
multiply  till,  in  the  time  of  Fehx  Fabri,  a.d.  1483,  we 
find  the  place  pointed  out  where  St.  John  adminis- 
tered the  sacrament  to  the  Blessed  Virgin ! 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  Breviary,  the  tract  of 
Theodosius,  and  the  Narrative  of  Antoninus  Martyr 
owe  many  of  their  statements  to  a  common  origin, 
perhaps  an  authorized  guide  to  the  Holy  Places.^ 

'  For  these  four  writers,  see  P.  P.  T.,  vol.  ii. 

■*  Sec  introduction  to  tlie  Breviary  by  Wilson,  P.  P.  T. ,  vol.  ii. 


58  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

The  Breviarius  de  Hierosolyma  contains  only  about 
six  hundred  words  and  is  strictly  confined  to  Jerusa- 
lem. Theodosius's  tract  is  a  general  hash  of  eastern 
geography,  with  an  especial  reference  to  Syria  and 
Palestine,  about  forty-four  scriptural  sites  being 
mentioned.  The  absence  of  any  personal  touches 
and  the  gross  inaccuracies  in  fixing  sites  suggest 
that  the  author,  in  regard  to  whom  nothing  is  known, 
was  no  more  than  an  unintelligent  compiler.  A  cer- 
tain order  is  at  first  preserved,  but  later  there  is 
much  skipping  about.  Long  distances  are  given  in 
miles;  short  distances,  as  between  sites  in  Jerusa- 
lem, in  paces. 

Antoninus  Martyr  of  Placentia,  however,  is  not 
concerned  with  geography  in  general,  but  devotes 
himself  to  describing  with  much  detail  his  own  pil- 
grimage, remarkable  for  the  extent  of  ground  it 
covers.  Landing  at  Antaradus  (opposite  to  the 
Island  of  Ruad,  the  home  of  the  ancient  Arvites), 
he  followed  the  coast  to  Acre  and  Mt.  Carmel; 
thence  he  turned  inland,  visiting  Nazareth,  Tabor, 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  the  sources  of  the  Jordan,  Gad- 
ara,  Scythopolis,  Sebastia  (the  real  Samaria),  and 
Neapolis  (Shechem,  but  confused  by  the  writer  with 
Samaria.  )i  At  this  place  he  appears  to  have  left  the 
direct  highway  to  Jerusalem,  and  to  have  struck  the 
Jordan  Valley,  following  it  to  the  Dead  Sea.  Jer- 
icho, the  field  of  the  Lord  at  Galgala  (Gilgal),  the 
tree  of  Zacchaeus,  and  the  Fountain  of  EHsha  are 
touched  upon.     Ascending  to  Jerusalem,    he   pro- 

'  There  is  much  confusion  in  the  text  as  to  the  exact  order  in 
which  the  places  in  Galilee  and  Samaria  were  visited. 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  69 

ceeded  thence  to  Hebron  and  so  on  to  Mt.  Sinai  via 
Eleutheropolis,  Ascalon,  Gaza,  and  Ailah.  Before 
returning  to  Palestine  he  made  a  long  tour  in  Egypt. 
On  his  home  journey  he  visited  Damascus,  Heliopo- 
lis  (Baalbec),  and  Antioch.  The  original  account 
leaves  him  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  and  we 
are  not  told  how  this  indefatigable  traveller  got 
home.  1 

Antoninus  appears  to  have  written  from  memory, 
after  his  journey  was  over.  That  this  was  not 
strong  enough  to  bear  the  tremendous  strain  put 
upon  it,  he  frankly  acknowledges  in  his  confession 
that  he  had  forgotten  many  of  the  relics  shown  him 
on  Mt.  Zion  (c.  22).  But  he  surely  remembered  a 
sufficient  number!  At  Nazareth  were  exhibited  the 
book  from  which  Christ  learned  the  alphabet,  and 
the  bench  where  he  worked  as  Carpenter  (c.  5).  At 
Diocaesarea  he  adored  the  pail  and  basket  of  Mary 
(c.  4).  At  Gethsemane  he  saw  the  three  couches 
on  which  the  Saviour  reclined  (c.  17).  His  memory 
failed  him,  however,  as  to  the  exact  order  of  the 
towns  between  Heliopolis  and  Emesa.  But  his  con- 
founding Neapolis  with  Samaria  (c.  6),  Caesarea 
Philippi  with  Csesarea  on  the  coast  (c.  46),  and  Azo- 
tus  (Ashdod)  with  Lydda  or  Diospolis  (c.  26)  must 
be  set  down  to  sheer  ignorance.  His  topsy-turvy 
account  of  the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea  (c.  10),  on 
which  he  declares  nothing  will  float,  is  hard  to  ex- 
plain on  any  ground. 

That  Antoninus  could  observe  carefully  when  he  so 

'  The  final  sentence,  briefly  mentioning  the  return  to  Plaoentia, 
appears  to  be  a  later  addition. 


60  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

desirea  is  shown  by  several  examples,  hence  we  are 
tantalized  by  ' '  the  things  left  out. ' '  For  instance,  the 
splendid  ruins  of  Baalbec  are  passed  without  a  word. 
However,  interspersed  with  absurd  trivialities  ^  are 
some  notes  still  of  value  to-day.  Chief  among  these 
are  his  accounts  of  the  ' '  water  running  under  the 
street ' '  leading  to  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  and  of  the 
Church  above  the  Pool  (23-24).  This  street,  some 
twenty-five  feet  wide,  with  its  curb  and  manholes 
leading  down  to  a  well-constructed  drain,  and  the 
church,  whose  altar  was  directly  above  the  entrance 
to  the  Siloam  Tunnel,  were  excavated  under  fields 
of  cauliflower  by  Mr.  Dickie  and  myself  in  the  year 
1896.2  From  the  Bishop  of  Berytus  (Beyrout)  he 
learned  that  some  30,000  persons  had  perished  in 
the  earthquake  which  had  recently  shaken  the 
Phoenician  coast  (c.  1).  He  relates  that  the  people 
of  Samaria  had  such  a  hatred  for  Christ  that  they 
burned  with  straw  the  footsteps  of  pilgrims  and 
refused  to  receive  coins  from  them  till  they  were 
cast  into  water  (c.  8).  At  the  Fountain  of  Elisha, 
near  Jericho,  he  found  vines  and  cedars,  as  well  as 
palm-trees  from  which  he  procured  dates  to  be 
taken  home  as  presents  (c.  14). 

When  the  next  visitor  who  has  left  any  record  of 
his  travels  visited  Palestine  the  conditions  of  pilgrim- 
age had  greatly  altered.  Arculf,  Bishop  of  Gaul, 
found  the  Holy  Land  under  the  sway  of  Islam,     In 

'  Note  liis  statement  (c.  9),  tliat  the  dew  in  the  Jordan  valley  fell 
like  rain  and  was  colleotcd  hy  doctors,  who  cooked  food  in  it  for 
the  hos])iccs  ! 

•  Excavations  at  Jerusalem,  I81»4-!t7,  chap.  v. 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  61 

A.D.  615,  twenty-two  years  before  the  surrender  of 
Jerusalem  to  the  Cahph  Omar,  the  churches  of  Con- 
stantine,  grouped  about  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  had 
been  destroyed  or  greatly  injured  during  the  raid  of 
Chosroes  11. ,  the  Persian.  These  had  been  repaired 
or  rebuilt  by  Modestus  after  Heraclius  restored  the 
Holy  Land  to  Christian  rule  in  627.  But  when 
Arculf  visited  them  about  the  year  670,  it  was  only 
by  sufferance  of  the  Moslem  rulers  who  had  con- 
trolled the  country  for  a  generation.  We  are  bound 
to  note,  however,  that  Arculf's  narrative  practically 
ignores  the  Moslem  regime.  From  the  absence  of 
reference  to  fanatic  obstruction  we  may  infer  that 
while  the  Western  Pilgrims  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventh  century  must  have  keenly  felt  the  change 
of  rulers,  their  suffering  was  sentimental  rather  than 
practical.  The  loss  of  the  land  naturally  put  a  stop 
to  the  rush  of  pilgrimage,  but  those  daring  souls 
who  attempted  it  under  the  Ommayad  Caliphs  were 
rewarded  by  finding  things  not  at  all  as  evil  as 
they  must  have  feared.  Still  fluslied  with  its  first 
rapid  and  victorious  onslaught  upon  Christendom, 
still  inspired  with  the  hope  of  conquering  the  world, 
Islam  could  well  afford  to  show  a  tolerant  spirit  in 
the  land  where  its  supremacy  was  unquestioned. 

The  account  which  we  have  of  Arculf's  pilgrim- 
age is  due  to  a  happy  accident.  ^  On  his  return 
voyage  the  good  Bishop's  shi})  was  driven  by  storm 
on  to  the  west  coast  of  Scotland.  After  much  suf- 
fering he  found  refuge  with  Adamnan,  Abbot  of  Hy 
at  lona,  who  not  only  listened  (eagerly  to  the  tales  of 

>  r.  r.  T.,  vol.  iii. 


62  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

his  new  friend's  adventures  but  took  these  down  on 
wax  tablets  and  later  committed  them  to  parchment. 
The  account  was  widely  circulated,  especially  in  its 
abbreviated  form  published  by  the  Venerable  Bede. 
Adamnan's  Latin  style  is  both  involved  and  prolix. 
However  indicative  of  personal  modesty,  his  constant 
iteration  of  the  phrases  :  ' '  Arculf  the  writer  of  the 
above-mentioned  Holy  Places, "  "  Arculf  of  whom  I 
have  spoken,"  "The  sainted  Arculf  who  has  been 
so  often  mentioned  ' '  becomes  both  tiresome  and  ab- 
surd. That  the  Abbot  had  pretensions  to  learning 
is  illustrated  by  his  claiming  to  insert  into  Arculf 's 
account  some  excerpts  from  Jerome.  What  these 
pretensions  were  worth  may  be  gathered  from  the 
statement  that  it  was  Nebuchadnezzar  who  joined 
the  Island  of  Tyre  to  the  main-land. 

An  elementary  regard  for  form  is  shown  by  the  di- 
visions of  the  account  into  three  books,  the  first  deal- 
ing with  Jerusalem  and  vicinity ;  the  second  with  other 
sacred  sites  in  the  Holy  Land,  with  a  reference  also 
to  Egypt;  and  the  last  mainly  with  Constantinople. 
The  chief  interest  in  the  first  book  lies  in  the  detailed 
account  of  the  buildings  grouped  about  the  Holy  Sep- 
ulchre after  the  restoration  by  Modestus.  A  plan, 
originally  made  on  a  wax  tablet,  very  rude  and  not 
drawn  to  scale,  is  given.  Indeed,  there  appears  to  have 
been  little  pretence  to  accuracy,  as  in  regard  to  the 
church  of  the  Ascension  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the 
narrative  states,  ' '  A  drawing  of  this  round  church 
has  been  given  below,  however  unworthily  it  may 
have  been  drawn."  The  other  plans  in  the  work 
are  those  of  the  church  on  Mt.  Zion  and  of  the  church 


THE  AGE  OF  PILQRIMAOE  63 

above  Jacob's  Well,  near  Shechem.i  Arculf's  testi- 
mony as  to  the  actual  existence  in  his  day  of  a  cave 
in  the  Round  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  is  val- 
uable. "The  Cabin  of  our  Lord's  Tomb,"  he 
writes,  "is  in  no  way  ornamented  on  the  inside  and 
shows  even  to  this  day  over  all  its  surface  traces  of 
the  tools  which  the  hewers  or  excavators  used  in 
their  work;  the  colour  of  that  rock  both  of  the 
Tomb  and  of  the  Sepulchre  is  not  one,  but  two  col- 
ours seem  to  have  been  intermingled,  namely  red 
and  white,  whence  also  that  rock  appears  to  be  two- 
coloured. "  2  We  should  note  also  Arculf's  reference 
to  the  column  in  the  middle  of  Jerusalem,  marking 
the  centre  of  the  World — a  feature  that  became 
prominent  in  the  later  wheel-map  schemes. 

In  Palestine  Arculf  visited  the  ordinary  sites,  but 
these  are  not  always  described  in  itinerary  or^er. 
For  example,  the  narrative  leaps  from  Mt.  Tabor  to 
Damascus  and  then  at  once  back  to  Tyre.  He  was 
accompanied  for  part  of  the  trip  by  a  guide  called 
Peter,  a  Burgundian  Monk,  well  acquainted  with  the 
land — too  well  acquainted  perhaps,  for,  like  the  drag- 
oman of  to-day,  he  sometimes  hurried  poor  Arculf 
away  from  a  place  before  he  was  ready  to  move  on. 
Still,  our  pilgrim  was  able  to  make  little  notes  on  the 
natural  features  of  the  land;  unlike  most  of  the 
early  pilgrims,  his  eyes  were  not  closed  to  everything 
but  sacred  sites.  His  readers  are  permitted  to  con- 
trast the  rough  and  rocky  ground,  extending  north 
from  Jerusalem,  with  the  fertile  country  stretching 

*  Arculf's  plans  are  the  earliest  known. 
'  Book  I,  chap.  iv. 


64  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

toward  Csesarea  on  the  coast.  He  notes  the  woods 
encircling  the  Sea  of  GaUlee  and  the  well-watered 
olive-gardens  of  Damascus,  But  all  through  the 
land  Arculf  remains  a  credulous  pilgrim.  He  puts 
faith  in  the  story  that  all  attempts  to  keep  vaulted 
the  church  of  the  Ascension  on  the  Mount  of  Olives 
were  frustrated  by  a  violent  blast  of  wind  blowing 
at  mid-day  on  every  anniversary  of  our  Lord's  As- 
cension. Did  he  not  himself  witness  this  dreadful 
storm  one  Ascension  Day?  ^  Perhaps  it  is  Adam- 
nan,  not  Arculf,  who  should  be  credited  with  an 
elementary  use  of  Biblical  criticism.  In  naming  a 
church  near  Bethany,  built  on  the  spot  ' '  where 
Christ  addressed  the  Apostles,"  the  narrative  com- 
pares the  various  gospel  accounts  with  a  view  to  de- 
termining what  address  is  indicated,  when  it  was 
given,  and  to  what  individuals  it  was  addressed.  2 

Of  the  pilgrimage  of  St.  Willibald  two  accounts 
were  written.  He  is  the  first  English  pilgrim  of 
whom  we  have  any  adequate  record,  and  the  story  of 
his  pilgrimage  is  the  only  one  of  importance  which 
has  come  down  to  us  from  the  eighth  century.  Wil- 
libald was  worthy  of  his  high  connection.  Nephew 
to  St.  Boniface,  the  Apostle  of  Germany,  and  a  rela- 
tive of  Winna,  King  of  Wessex,  he  himself,  at  the  age 
of  forty-one,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Eichstadt,  in 
Bavaria,  where  by  his  missionary  labors  for  forty- 
five  years  he  converted  a  wild  land  of  forests  into  a 
spiritual  garden,  "  shining  with  churches,  presbyter- 
ies and  relics  of  the  saints."  He  died  in  a.d.  786, 
and  hence  must  have  been  quite  a  young  man  in 

'  Book  I,  chap,  iiiii.  -  Book  I,  chap.  ixv. 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  65 

the  year  722,  when  he  made  his  pilgrimage  to 
Palestine.  Of  the  two  accounts  called  respectively 
the  Hodoeporicon  and  the  Itinerary,  the  former  is 
to  be  preferred  as  a  conscientious  record,  though 
the  latter  is  pleasanter  reading.  ^  The  Hodoepori- 
con was  written  from  Willibald's  dictation  by  one 
of  his  relatives,  an  English  nun  of  the  Abbey  of 
Heidenheim.  The  anonymous  author  of  the  Itin- 
erary was  a  companion  of  Willibald's  pilgrimage, 
but  he  appears  to  mix  up  his  own  recollections  with 
the  nun's  account  as  well  as  with  the  results  of  his 
reading  in  ecclesiastical  history.  Still,  he  is  valu- 
able in  furnishing,  at  times,  independent  testimony 
to  the  accuracy  of  the  other  narrative  and  in  filling 
up  some  lacunce  occurring  in  it. 

Willibald  landed  at  Tharratae  or  Antaradus,  oppo- 
site the  Island  Ruad.  Proceeding  to  Emesa  (Hums), 
he  was  there  arrested  as  a  spy  and  detained  till 
the  Commander  of  the  Faithful  was  convinced  of 
his  peaceful  intentions.  Willibald  thus  had  some 
difficulty  in  entering  the  country,  and  later  he  found 
it  hard  to  get  his  passports  for  leaving,  but  his  in- 
termediate wanderings  appear  to  have  been  little 
disturbed  by  government  interference.  True,  at  Tyre, 
our  traveller  was  bound  while  his  luggage  was  un- 
dergoing examination  by  the  customs  officials,  but  that 
their  severity  was  justified,  though  not  rewarded,  is 
proved  by  the  Saint's  confession  that  he  had  suc- 
cessfully smuggled  some  balsam  inside  a  hollow 
cane,  placed  in  a  large  calabash,  which  appeared  to 
contain  nothing  but  potroloum."-^     Theso  wandorings 

'  See  P.  P.  T.,  vol.  iii,  fur  \><ilh  accotints.  ■  Hod.,  xxviii. 


6(y  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

were  extensive,  bringing  him  four  times  to  Jerusalem, 
This  was  first  reached  by  a  somewhat  long  detour 
via  Damascus,  Nazareth,  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  Cses- 
area  Philippi,  the  Jordan  Valley  and  the  Jericho 
Plain.  He  entered  it  again  after  an  excursion  to 
Bethlehem,  Gaza,  and  Hebron.  When  for  the  third 
time  he  saw  it,  he  had  visited  the  Phoenician  coast 
and  had  crossed  the  Lebanon  to  Damascus.  A 
fourth  entry  was  made  after  a  trip  to  Emesa,  visited 
for  the  second  time,  and  to  Damascus,  visited  for 
the  third  time.  Bidding  farewell  to  the  Holy  City, 
he  proceeded  through  Samaria,  crossed  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  and  finally  embarked  from  Tyre  to  Con- 
stantinople. When  I  state  that  the  entire  descrip- 
tion of  these  wanderings,  as  found  in  the  Hodoepori- 
con,  can  be  read  aloud  in  twenty  minutes,  it  will  be 
gathered  that  they  are  not  given  with  much  detail. 
Brief  references  are  made  to  thirty-one  Scriptural 
sites,  but  long  stretches  of  the  land  are  passed  over 
without  comment.  Still,  as  a  connecting  link  be- 
tween Arculf  and  Bernard,  the  two  narratives  are  of 
value,  especially  in  their  notices  of  churches  and 
sacred  sites. 

Our  account  of  the  pre-Crusading  pilgrims  closes 
with  the  brief  Itinerary  of  Bernard  the  Wise,  writ- 
ten about  A.D,  870,1  rp}^g  tenth  century  has  fur- 
nished us  with  no  history  of  Palestinian  travels,  and 
the  journey  of  Altmann,  Bishop  of  Passau,  made  in 
1065,  is  preserved  only  in  extracts  made  by  several 
authors  and  found  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  The 
brief  tract,    * '  How  the  City  of  Jerusalem  is  Situ- 

'  p.  p.  T.,  vol.  iii. 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  67 

ated,"  *  probably  antedates  the  first  Crusade,  but  it 
is  not  composed  in  narrative  form,  being  rather  a 
sort  of  impersonal  guide-book  to  the  holy  places, 
though  the  anonymous  writer  testifies  that  he  has 
seen  them  all. 

UnHke  his  predecessors,  the  Monk  Bernard  en- 
tered Palestine  from  the  south,  and,  also  unlike 
them,  he  suffered  from  the  severity  of  Moslem 
rule  expressing  itself  in  cupidity.  The  compara- 
tively tolerant  sway  of  the  Ommayad  Caliphs  had, 
in  750,  given  place  to  the  iron  grip  of  the  Abbas- 
sides,  who  soon  began  to  see  in  the  new  Frankish 
Kingdom  a  potential  check  on  their  supremacy. 
Here  is  a  tale  of  Bukhshish  that  might  be  related 
of  many  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire  to-day.  Let- 
ters recommending  Bernard  and  his  two  fellow- 
monks  to  the  Governor  of  Alexandria  were  not  rec- 
ognized till  the  latter  was  persuaded  by  a  bribe  to 
write  similar  letters  to  the  chief  man  of  Babylonia, 
by  which  name  middle  Egypt  went  in  those  days. 
He  in  turn  paid  not  attention  to  these  passports 
until  the  same  golden  persuasion  was  used,  when  he 
also  wrote  letters.  These  proved  to  be  of  more 
effect,  though  later  no  departure  from  a  given  town 
could  be  effected  without  payment  for  a  new  permit. 
After  all  this  detail  in  regard  to  the  trouble  in  get- 
ting to  Palestine,  we  are  prepared  to  read  a  full  ac- 
count of  the  Land.  But  this  is  not  forthcoming. 
We  learn  briefly  that  Gaza  was  approached  by  the 
desert — "  white  like  the  earth  in  the  time  of  snow  " 
— and  then  that  Jerusalem  was  readied  via  Rainloh 

'  P.  P.  T.,  vol.  i :  Qualiter  Civitus  Jerusalem  sita  est. 


68  -         PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

and  Nicopolis.  The  ordinary  sites  in  and  about  the 
Holy  City  are  hardly  more  than  catalogued.  Galilee 
and  Samaria  remained  unvisited.  We  may  note,  how- 
ever, the  early  mention  of  the  Holy  Fire  in  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  on  the  Saturday  be- 
fore. Easter. 

For  the  lack  of  information  in  regard  to  Syria  and 
Palestine,  from  Western  sources,  between  the  Monk 
Bernard  and  the  period  of  the  Crusades,  we  have 
abundant  compensation  in  the  wealth  of  material 
furnished  by  Arab  and  Persian  historians  and  geog- 
raphers. The  extent  and  value  of  this  material  was 
not  properly  appreciated  by  the  scholars  of  Europe 
and  America  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
while  its  systematization  was  not  effected  till  the 
year  1890,  when  that  brilliant  Arabic  scholar,  Guy 
le  Strange,  brother-in-law  to  the  mystic  genius,  Lau- 
rence Oliphant,  published  his  "Palestine  under  the 
Moslems. ' '  This  work  extracts  the  essence  from 
twenty-four  writers,  from  Khurdadbih,  a.d.  864,  to 
Mujir-ed-Din,  a.d.  1496.  Of  these  twenty-four 
authors,  Ritter's  list  of  authorities  mentions  only 
seven,  while  Robinson  in  his  bibliography,  which 
claims  to  be  fairly  complete  up  to  about  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  refers  only  to  four. 

As  the  most  original  work  done  by  the  Moslems 
along  geographical  lines  falls  strictly  within  the 
province  of  this  lecture,  namely,  the  pre-Crusading 
period,  we  may  appropriately  illustrate  the  series  here 
by  considering  two  writers  of  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries  respectively.  In  a  general  way  these  are 
typical  of  all  their  co-religionists.     As  le  Strange 


THE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  69 

points  out  in  his  first  chapter,  the  geographical 
writers  are  closely  linked  together.  Desiring  to 
make  his  work  as  complete  as  possible,  each  incor- 
porates from  earlier  authors  all  that  he  can  gather, 
adding  the  results  of  his  own  personal  observations, 
in  case  he  happens  to  be  a  traveller.  We  may  be 
pardoned,  therefore,  if  we  first  briefly  review  the 
entire  series  though  it  encroaches  on  the  ground  of 
the  next  lecture. 

An  impulse  was  given  to  geographical  learning 
by  the  translation  into  Arabic  of  the  geography  of 
Claudius  Ptolemy  early  in  the  seventh  century,  under 
the  patronage  of  the  Caliph  Al  Mamun.  The  new 
school  of  geographical  science  then  formed  was  thus 
linked  on  to  the  old  Greek  learning.  But  the  light 
reflected  from  the  ancient  world  was  not  in  turn  re- 
flected by  the  new  Europe  till  after  the  Crusaaes. 
For  centuries,  to  change  the  figure,  the  steadily 
increasing  stream  of  Arab  science  did  not  stir  the 
stagnant  pools  of  the  West.  The  first  systematic 
geography  treating  of  Palestine  is  that  of  Istakhri 
(951),  enlarged  and  emended  by  Ibn  Haukal  (978). 
While  this  is  an  improvement  upon  the  mere  Road 
Books  or  Revenue  Lists  of  their  predecessors,  yet  it 
has  not  the  extent  of  information  of  tlie  work  of 
Mukaddasi  (985),  one  of  the  authors  reserved  for 
our  consideration.  Passing  for  the  moment  over 
Nasir-i-Khasrau  (1047)  and  over  Idrisi  (1154),  per- 
haps the  Arab  geographer  the  best  known  to  the 
Western  world,  as  well  as  over  others  of  h^ss  impor- 
tance, we  come  to  the  geographical  lexicon  of  Yakut, 
completed  in  1225.     Tliis  vast  work,  which  describes 


70  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

in  alphabetical  order  every  town  and  place  of  which 
the  author  could  obtain  any  information,  covers  in 
the  printed  Arab  text  close  on  to  4,000  pages,  large 
octavo,  and  places  him  easily  at  the  head  of  all 
Arab  geographers.  Yakut  is  the  seventeenth  on 
Le  Strange 's  list;  the  seven  which  conclude  it  are  of 
less  importance.  However,  in  Dimashki,  c.  1300, 
Abu-el-Fida,  1321,  Ibn  Batutah,  1355,  and  Jemal- 
ed-Din,  1351,  many  interesting  details  may  be  found. 
Compared  with  the  parallel  Christian  writers  these 
authors  appear  to  be  masters  of  science  in  the  pres- 
ence of  schoolboys.  Not  only  is  their  material  far 
fuller,  but  this  is  better  digested,  more  systematically 
arranged,  and,  as  a  rule,  presented  in  a  purer  liter- 
ary style.  True,  from  a  modern  point  of  view,  they 
lack  in  precision  of  diction  as  well  as  in  an  orderly 
treatment  of  detail.  But  the  difference  between 
Idrisi  and  Theodrich — contemporaries  of  the  twelfth 
century — and  between  Yakut  and  Jacques  de  Vitry 
— contemporaries  of  the  thirteenth  century — is  wide 
and  deep.  In  point  of  time  Mukaddasi  is  separated 
from  Willibald  by  only  two  centuries;  in  point  of 
development  he  appears  to  have  outstripped  him  by 
more  than  five.  It  is  by  such  concrete  comparisons 
that  we  are  made  to  realize  that  the  morning  dawn 
of  Europe  coincided  with  the  high  noon  of  Islam. 

Turn  we  now  to  treat  with  some  detail  two  Moslem 
geographers.  Shams-ad-Din,  the  Sun  of  Religion, 
commonly  known  as  Mukaddasi — that  is,  the  Jeru- 
salemite — was  born  in  the  Holy  City  in  a.d.  946.^ 
His  geography,  published  in  985,  was  the  result  of 

'  P.  P.  T.,  vol.  iii. 


TEE  AGE  OF  PILGRIMAGE  71 

twenty  years'  preparation,  during  which  he  travelled 
through  the  Moslem  Empire,  measuring  distances, 
searching  boundaries  of  Provinces,  practising  dialects 
and  studying  religions.  His  chapter  devoted  to  Syria 
and  Palestine  comprises  only  a  tenth  part  of  his  work. 
An  admirable  introduction  to  this,  containing  a  rhe- 
torical sketch  of  the  chief  places  in  these  lands,  is 
followed  by  a  description  of  the  boundaries  of  Syria 
and  of  its  six  districts.  The  section  entitled  ' '  No- 
tices of  the  chief  towns,"  and  occupying  one-third 
of  the  whole  chapter,  contains  a  variety  of  miscellane- 
ous information.  Climate  is  touched  upon :  Damas- 
cus is  said  to  be  scorching,  Jerusalem  neither  very 
hot  nor  very  cold;  at  Jericho  the  heat  is  excessive, 
while  the  author  bids  those  who  find  the  Angel  of 
Death  delaying  to  try  the  evil  climate  of  Segor  at 
the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  Valley.  Like  the 
modern  inhabitants  of  Syria,  who  differentiate  the 
qualities  of  two  fountains  which  seem  to  the  West- 
erner to  be  of  equal  excellence,  he  pays  particular 
attention  to  the  supply  of  drinking-water.  The 
water  of  Jericho  (Er-Riha)  is  lightest  and  best  in 
all  Islam;  in  Acre  the  wells  are  deep  and  salty:  the 
poor  go  thirsty  and  strangers  seek  in  vain ;  at  Beisan 
the  water  is  heavy  of  digestion ;  at  Tiberias  the  lake- 
water  is  light  of  digestion.  The  characteristics  of 
the  people  are  noted.  At  Aleppo  they  are  culti- 
vated, rich,  and  endowed  with  understanding;  at 
Damascus,  turbulent;  the  men  of  Hums  are  witless, 
of  'Amman  illiterate.  In  speaking  of  his  fellow- 
townsmen  he  seems  to  be  impelled  by  the  conflicting 
motives  of  loyalty  and  criticism.     When  moved  by 


72  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

loyalty,  he  says:  "In  Jerusalem  are  all  manner  of 
learned  men  and  doctors,  and  for  this  the  hearts  of 
men  of  intelligence  yearn  towards  her.  "^  But  later, 
in  enumerating  the  disadvantages  of  the  place,  he 
says,  "Learned  men  are  few;  the  mosque  is  devoid 
of  either  congregation  or  learned  men.  "2  In  his 
introductory  chapter  to  the  whole  work  he  declares 
that  in  Jerusalem  ' '  one  can  find  neither  defect  nor 
deficiency.  .  .  .  The  people  are  noted  for  piety 
and  sincerity. ' '  And  yet  in  the  more  detailed  ac- 
count we  read  that  ' '  the  oppressed  have  no  succor, 
the  weak  are  molested  and  the  rich  envied."  Per- 
haps the  explanation  for  these  discrepancies  lies  in 
the  statement  that  ' '  everywhere  the  Christians  and 
the  Jews  have  the  upper  hand. ' '  Perhaps  he  means 
to  attribute  the  virtues  of  Jerusalem  to  the  Moham- 
medans, its  defects  to  the  Christians.  At  any  rate 
here  is  valuable  testimony  to  the  independent  con- 
dition of  the  Christians  of  Jerusalem  before  the  fierce 
persecution  of  the  mad  Caliph  Al-Hakim  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  next  century. 

In  the  notes  on  the  towns  we  naturally  find  much 
attention  paid  to  the  mosques.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  is  referred  to  only  in  the 
incidental  statement  that  lest  its  magnificence  should 
dazzle  the  true  believers  the  splendid  mosques  of  Je- 
rusalem and  Ramleh  were  erected.  These,  together 
with  the  mosque  at  Damascus,  are  described  in  full. 

Contrary  to  our  modern  ideas  of  arrangement,  the 
chapter  closes  with  a  section  on  the  general  features 
and  peculiarities  of  the  land.     It  should  be  empha- 

'  r.  r.  T.,  vol.  iii,  Mukaddasi,  p.  35.  '  Ibid.,  p.  37. 


THE  AGE  OF  PILORnfAGE  73 

sized  that  Mukaddasi  is  the  first  to  recognize  the 
four  physical  belts  into  which  it  is  naturally  divided : 
the  maritime  plain,  the  central  mountain  range,  the 
depression  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  Eastern  highlands.  ^ 
In  this  systematized  generalization  he  anticipates  by 
many  centuries  the  scientific  observers  of  the  West. 
Among  the  many  subjects  treated  are  the  rivers, 
mountains,  minerals,  revenue,  commerce,  manners 
and  customs,  religion  and  government.  To  the 
chapter  is  appended  a  table  of  distances  along  the 
chief  roads. 

Of  a  somewhat  different  order  is  the  other  Moslem 
work  to  be  noticed,  namely,  the  diary  of  the  Persian, 
Nasir-i-Khusrau.2  In  1047  he  passed  four  months 
in  Syria  and  Palestine,  on  his  way  to  Mecca,  where 
he  hoped  that  the  influences  of  the  Holy  Place  might 
cure  his  habit  of  drink.  His  journal  abounds  in 
dates  and  distances.  Crossing  the  Euphrates  he 
arrived  atManbij,  the  ancient  Hierapolis,  on  January 
4th,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Aleppo.  Time  forbids 
our  following  his  itinerary  through  Hamath  and 
Hums  to  Tripoli  and  thence  along  the  coast  to  Ram- 
leh,  or  our  tracing  his  inland  excursion  to  Tiberias 
from  Acre.  A  few  examples  must  suffice  to  indi- 
cate his  careful  observation.  He  has  a  keen  eye  for 
flowers,  noting  that  the  plain  between  Hamath  and 
'Arka  was  white  with  narcissus,  and  that  at  Jebeil 
he  met  a  boy  carrying  two  roses,  though  it  was  only 
March  5th.  Archaeology  also  interests  him.  At 
Bey  rout  he  measures  a  splendid  ancient  arch,  under 
which  the  road-way  passed,  remarking  that  "  in  vari- 

'  P.  85.  ^r.  i'.  T.,  vol.  iv. 


74  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

ous  parts  of  Syria  there  may  be  seen  some  five  hun- 
dred thousand  columns,  or  capitals  and  shafts  of 
columns,  of  which  no  one  now  knows  either  the  maker 
or  can  say  for  what  purpose  they  were  hewn,  or  whence 
they  were  brought. "  ^  A  sense  of  humor  seems 
to  underlie  his  statement  that  the  governor  of  Tibe- 
rias, desiring  to  purify  the  lake-water  from  which 
the  people  drank,  diverted  the  sewage,  which  usually 
flowed  into  it,  with  the  result  that  the  waters  be- 
came fetid,  sweetness  not  returning  till  the  sewers 
were  again  allowed  to  open  into  it.^  In  Jerusalem 
his  interest  indeed  centres  in  the  Mosque  of  Omar, 
but  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  is  not  treated 
as  cursorily  as  it  is  by  Mukaddasi.^  In  the  course 
of  his  description  we  learn  that  it  had  been  given 
over  to  pillage  by  the  Caliph  Hakim,  but  that  it  had 
been  restored  by  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 
Before  proceeding  to  Mecca,  Nasir  made  an  excursion 
to  Hebron,  where  he  carefully  examined  the  tombs  of 
the  Patriarchs."* 

'  p.  9.  2  p.  16. 

^  Note,  however,  bis  adoption  of  the  wilful  perversion  of  the  word 
"Kayameh"  (resurrection)  to  "Kumameh"  (dunghill),  pp.  59-60. 

*  For  other  Itussian  pilgrims  besides  Daniel  mentioned  in  this 
lecture,  see  Drevne-russkoe  palomnitcbe-stvo  (Early  Kussian 
Pilgrims),  vol.  i,  p.  77,  vol.  ii,  pp.  6Q  ff. ;  St.  Petersburg,  1896-97. 
Also  the  chapter  on  the  Pilgrims  in  the  Holy  Land  in  the  Time  of 
the  Primitive  Church,  in  Lebedev's  Ecclesiastical  History — Tzer- 
kovno-istoritcheskiia  poviestvovauiia,  pp.  183-222;  Moscow,  1900. 


LECTURE     III 

THE   CRUSADERS   AND   AFTER 

With  the  entry  of  the  Crusaders  into  Jerusalem 
a  new  impetus  was  given  to  travel  in  Palestine. 
From  1099  to  1187 — almost  an  entire  century — pil- 
grims found  the  Holy  Land  under  Christian  rule. 
No  longer  were  they  entering  a  hostile  country,  held 
by  masters  professing  a  hostile  religion.  At  the 
beginning  of  this  period,  while  the  conquest  of  the 
land  was  still  in  progress,  and  toward  its  close 
when  Saladin,  rapid  and  destructive  as  a  forest  fiie, 
was  flashing  to  and  fro  between  Cairo  and  Damas- 
cus, bent  on  the  complete  reconquest  of  Palestine, 
the  country  was  in  a  condition  more  or  less  disturbed, 
but  during  the  intervening  years,  general  quiet  and 
security  prevailed.  No  wonder  that  the  spirit  of 
pilgrimage  which  had  fired  the  Christians  of  the 
West  early  in  the  fourth  century,  and  which  was 
dimmed,  though  never  extinguished,  during  the  four 
and  a  half  centuries  of  Moslem  rule,  now  flamed 
forth  anew.  Nor  was  the  Christian  ardor  quenched 
by  the  immense  loss  of  territory  following  that  fatal 
5th  of  July,  when  on  the  Horns  of  Hattin,  the  tra- 
ditional site  of  the  Mount  of  Beatitudes,  Saladin  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  Holy  Cross.  Pursuing  his 
advantage,  in  three  months  he  had  taken  Jerusalem, 


76  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

and  in  three  years  most  of  the  cities  of  the  Franks 
had,  one  after  another,  fallen  before  his  vehement 
attacks  until  nothing  remained  to  them  except  Tyre, 
Tripoli,  and  Antioch.  But  the  woful  tale  of  disaster 
shook  Christian  Europe,  and,  led  by  Richard  of  Eng- 
land and  Philip  of  France,  the  armies  of  the  Third 
Crusade  captured  Cyprus,  destined  to  remain  in 
Christian  hands  till  1486;  retook  Acre  on  July  12, 
1191;  avenged  the  Battle  of  Hattin  at  Arsuf,  on 
September  7th,  where  Saladin  met  an  awful  defeat; 
and  during  the  next  year  so  harried  that  magnificent 
enemy,  who  harried  them  in  turn,  that  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1192  both  parties  were  glad  to  agree  to  a  truce, 
the  terms  of  which  continued  practically  in  force  for 
a  century.  Ascalon  was  to  remain  dismantled  for 
three  years  from  September  2d ;  Jaffa  and  the  plains 
reverted  to  the  Christians,  and,  though  the  Holy 
City  remained  in  Moslem  hands,  pilgrims  were  al- 
lowed free  access  to  the  Holy  City.  Soon  every 
important  seaport  of  Syria  was  regained,  and  cer- 
tain inland  places  came  again  under  Christian  rule. 
Hence,  until  the  final  loss  of  Acre  on  May  18,  1292, 
pilgrims  were  sure  of  a  safe  entry  into  the  Holy 
Land  and  could  visit  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  and  Naza- 
reth by  especial  agreement  with  the  Moslems.  Bur- 
chard  of  Mt.  Zion,  who  wrote  about  1283,  visited 
these  places  and  Hebron,  Samaria,  and  the  Jordan 
district  as  well.  But  how  inaccessible  Eastern  Pales- 
tine had  become  is  illustrated  by  his  identifying  the 
two  famous  Crusading  fortresses  of  Crac  and  Mon- 
treal, which  fell  after  the  loss  of  Jerusalem,  not  only 
with  each  other  but  witli  Petra  in  the  Wilderness, 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  77 

placed  by  him  at  Kerak,  the  real  site  of  the  fortress 
of  Crac.  •  Thus  soon  were  the  trans-Jordanic  posses- 
sions of  the  Crusaders  forgotten.  After  the  final  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Franks,  pilgrimages  became  more  and 
more  difficult.  Felix  Fabri,  whose  second  visit  to 
Palestine  occurred  in  1483,  was  kept  in  the  port  of 
Jaffa  for  five  days  before  his  party  could  get  safe- 
conduct  to  Jerusalem;  he  made  the  circuit  of  its 
walls  in  the  heat  of  a  July  day,  to  avoid  molestation 
by  the  Saracens,  who  took  their  siesta  at  noontime; 
he  recounts  numerous  instances  of  extortion  and  per- 
secution ;  and  finally  gave  up  his  longed-for  trip  to 
Galilee,  in  accordance  with  the  advice  of  the  Father 
Guardian  of  the  Convent  of  Mt.  Zion,  who  declared 
that  the  trip  was  even  more  dangerous  than  the 
journey  to  Sinai. 

Thus,  as  far  as  opportunity  went,  the  Jubilee 
century  for  the  Western  traveller  to  the  Holy  Land 
was  the  twelfth.  From  the  Moslem  conquest  in 
636  to  the  present  day  no  period  has  presented  a 
more  tempting  chance  to  the  Christian  geographer 
and  archseologist.  All  Palestine,  east  and  west, 
called  to  him,  but  he  did  not  answer  the  cry  for  the 
simple  reason  that  he  was  not  yet  born.  Inspired 
by  the  Crusading  spirit,  Europe  had  shaken  off  some 
of  its  lethargy,  but  this  still  clogged  pure  intellectual 
effort.  The  writers  of  this  century  confine  them- 
selves, as  a  rule,  to  a  description  of  the  Holy  Places 
which  they  have  venerated — Jerusalem,  Bethlehem, 
Shechem,  Nazareth,  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  with  a  few 
intermediate  points  along  the  routers — and  to  a  brief 
catalogue  of  other  places  nut  visited  by  them,  or  else 


78  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

compile  a  sort  of  impersonal  guide-book,  containing, 
indeed,  more  names  than  the  personal  itineraries, 
but,  like  most  of  these,  lacking  a  firm  grasp  of  broad 
geographical  outlines.  The  earliest  known  mediaeval 
map  of  Palestine  ^  was  prepared  by  Burchard  of  Mt. 
Zion,  who  wrote  in  1283,  almost  a  century  after  the 
loss  of  Jerusalem,  only  nine  years  before  the  final 
expulsion  of  the  Franks,  and  thus  at  a  time  when 
identification  of  sites  by  personal  investigation  had 
become  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  The  guide- 
book bearing  the  pseudonym  of  Fetellus  appears  to 
have  been  written  about  a.d.  1130,  in  the  heyday 
of  Latin  power,  but  though  the  writer  mentions 
more  Scriptural  place-names  than  any  other  author 
of  the  century,  these  amount  only  to  110  over  against 
155  mentioned  by  Burchard.  However,  we  hasten 
to  add,  as  far  as  critical  faculty  and  true  geograph- 
ical knowledge  go,  there  is  not  much  to  choose  be- 
tween the  writers  of  the  twelfth  century  and  those 
of  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth,  though 
the  latter  are  to  be  preferred  in  matters  of  order  and 
arrangement.  Accordingly,  before  taking  up,  one  by 
one,  the  prominent  authors  of  these  four  centuries, 
we  may  with  profit  consider  some  of  the  principal 
mistakes  in  Scriptural  identification  obtaining  during 
this  period.  2 

*  See  p.  108.  This  was  apparently  the  first  detailed  map.  For 
earlier  attempts  at  Cartography,  see  Kohricht's  Bibliograpliy. 

^  For  the  following  references,  see  P.  P.  T.,  vol.  iv,  Sajwulf, 
Abbot  Daniel ;  vol.  v,  Fetellus,  John  of  Wiirzburg,  Theoderich, 
Phocas  ;  vols,  vii-x,  Felix  Fabri  (two  volumes  in  four);  vol. 
xi,  Jacques  de  Vitry ;  vol.  xii,  Burchard,  Marino  Sanuto,  von 
Suciicm. 


THE    CRUSADERS    AND    AFTER  79 

One  would  think  that  no  intelligent  inquirer  could 
fail  to  identify  either  the  Abana  or  the  Pharpar, 
"rivers  of  Damascus,"  with  the  Barada,  which, 
rising  in  a  plain  of  the  Anti-Libanus,  brings  life  and 
fertility  to  the  city  of  Damascus,  and  then  dis- 
appears in  the  plain  to  the  east.  Modern  scholar- 
ship regards  the  Barada  as  identical  with  the  Abana 
of  Scripture,  identifying  the  Pharpar  with  one  of 
the  smaller  local  streams.  But  Fetellus  (c.  1130), ^ 
John  of  Wiirzburg  (c.  11 60), 2  and  Theoderich  (c. 
1172)3  represent  both  these  streams  as  flowing  into 
the  Mediterranean,  the  former  through  the  plain  of 
Archas  (placed  by  Fetellus  near  Tripoli),  and  the 
latter  west  of  Antioch,  being  confused,  evidently,  with 
the  Orontes.  The  latter  error  is  followed  by  Marino 
Sanuto,  1321.'*  The  absurd  story  at  least  as  old  as 
the  time  of  Jerome,  that  the  Jordan  took  its  name 
from  two  sources  near  the  foot  of  the  Lebanon, 
called  Jor  and  Dan,  is  repeated,  with  variations 
throughout  the  whole  period.  The  Abbot  Daniel 
represents  these  streams  as  issuing  separately  from 
the  Sea  of  Galilee.  ^  Fetellus  ^  and  John  of  Wiirz- 
burg ^  appear  to  identify  Dan  with  the  Yarmuk,  or 
brook  Jabbok,  which  flows  into  the  Jordan  south  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Burchard  (c.  1283)  ^  and  Marino 
Sanuto  (c.  132 1)^  come  somewhat  nearer  the  mark 
in  stating  that  these  unite  before  the  gate  of  the 
city  of  Belinas  or  Csesarea  Philippi.  The  true  rela- 
tion of  the  three  main  sources  of  the  Jordan  (the 


•  p.  24. 

'  Cap.  XXV. 

»  Cap.  xlix. 

*  Cap.  1,  p.  2 

*  Cap.  Ixxvi. 

•  P.  20. 

*  Cap.  iiv. 

»  Cap.  iii,  p.  23. 

"Cap.  iii.,  p.  19, 

80  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

Hasbany,  and  the  fountains  at  Tell-el-Kady  and 
Banias)  and  their  exact  points  of  juncture  were  left 
for  the  great  Robinson  to  discover.  ^ 

Even  more  confused  are  the  references  to  Iturea, 
the  present  Jediir  district  extending  from  Mt.  Her- 
mon  southeastward  toward  the  Leja.  Finding  the 
name  in  History,  the  mediaeval  writers  appear  to 
have  had  a  blind  and  uneasy  instinct — a  geograph- 
ical instinct,  by  the  way,  not  confined  to  mediaeval 
times — that  the  place  must  be  located  somewhere; 
rightly  if  possible,  but  located  at  any  rate.  Jacques 
de  Vitry  (c.  1220)  places  it  in  the  "Valley  called 
Bakar  "  (the  modern  Buka'a,  between  the  Lebanon 
and  the  Anti-Libanus).^  Burchard  quotes  this  as 
"Iturea  proper,"  but,  in  recognizing  another  use  of 
the  term,  adds  two  more  errors  to  his  list  by  giving 
both  Iturea  and  Decapolis  as  synonyms  of  Galilee  of 
the  Gentiles,  whose  boundaries  he  states  with  general 
correctness.  3  Accordingly,  his  list  of  the  ten  cities 
of  the  Decapolis  is  quite  wrong,  with  the  exception 
of  Bethshean,  the  one  city  of  this  ancient  district 
west  of  the  Jordan.  A  like  inconsistency  appears 
in  his  use  of  the  term  Trachonitis,  which  to  the 
ancients  indicated  the  district  southeast  of  Iturea, 
having  for  its  centre  the  stretch  of  lava  now  called 
the  Leja.  Trachonitis  he  first  declares  is  separated 
from  Iturea  by  the  Jordan. "*  Even  if  he  is  here 
referring  to  his  "Iturea  proper,"  the  statement  is 

'I.  R.  II.,  iii,  pp.  396  ff.  ^  Cap.  ilvii. 

'Cap.  vi,  p.  41 ;  of.  cap.  iv,  p.  31.     Jacques  de  Vitry  also  place 
Decapolis  entirely  west  of  the  Jordan. 
*  Cap.  iii,  p.  23. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  81 

absurd.  But  this  geographical  tangle  is  further 
complicated  by  a  later  assertion  that  Trachonitis  is 
yet  another  synonym  for  the  second  Iturea,  identi- 
fied by  him,  as  we  have  seen,  with  Galilee  of  the 
Gentiles.  ^  In  some  of  these  mistakes  he  is  followed 
by  Marino  Sanuto.^ 

The  uncritical  attitude  of  this  period  may  be 
further  illustrated  by  tracing  the  identification  of 
Bethel.  The  Anglo-Saxon  pilgrim  Ssewulf  (c.  1103) 
declares  that  the  site  of  Solomon's  Temple  at 
Jerusalem  was  anciently  called  Bethel,  and  that  here 
Jacob  set  up  a  stone.  ^  Fetellus  (c.  1130)  calls  the 
temple  Bethel,^  but  places  the  site  of  Jacob's  vision 
at  Luz  or  Bethel  on  Mt.  Gerizim  above  Shechem.^ 
John  of  Wiirzburg  (c.  1160)  has  a  fine  disregard  of 
consistency  respecting  this  event.  While  dealing 
with  the  sites  in  Samaria,  he  localizes  it  at  the 
hypothetical  Bethel  on  Gerizim.  ^  In  his  first  ref- 
erence to  the  Temple  he  calls  it  "this  present 
Bethel;"''  but  later,  in  discussing  a  stone  there 
shown  as  the  very  stone  upon  which  Jacob  laid  his 
head,  he  declares  the  incident  occurred  not  here  but 
near  the  greater  Mahumeria,  which  is  probably  to 
be  identified  with  Bireh,  north  of  Jerusalem  and 
not  far  from  Beitin,  the  true  site.^  Theoderich 
describes  the  stone  in  the  Temple  without  opening  up 
the  question  as  to  whether  it  was  in  })lace,^  and 
later  on  adopts  the  Samaritan  sito.^"  Burchard^^ 
declares  that  the  Bible  gives  no  support  to  those 


'Cap.  vi,  p.  41. 

'  Cap.  iii. 

'  V 

I.'..                 'P.  ,". 

•  P.  34. 

'■  ('a|).  ii. 

'  (•; 

\\i    iii.           "  ('a[), 

•  Cap.  XV. 

'"  Ca]..  xlii. 

"  {•; 

[i|).  vii,  p.  (11. 

82  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

who  would  identify  Jerusalem  with  Bethel,  unless 
the  Temple  was  so  called  because  it  was  the  House 
of  God.  He  quotes  the  testimony  of  Jerome  that 
Bethel  was  twelve  miles  from  Jerusalem  on  the  way 
to  Neapolis  (Shechem),  thus  indicating,  apparently, 
the  true  site.  In  this  identification  he  is  followed, 
as  usual,  by  Marino  Sanuto.^ 

While  many  writers  quote  the  Biblical  phrase 
"from  Dan  to  Beersheba"  as  indicating  the  extent 
of  the  Holy  Land,  it  was  long  before  the  latter  was 
given  its  proper  position  at  Bir-es-Seba'  in  the  far 
South.  Beersheba  is  wrongly  placed  by  Jacques  de 
Vitry,2  Burchard,3  and  Marino  Sanuto^  at  Beit 
Jibrin,  the  Greek  Eleutheropolis,  the  Gibelin  of  the 
Crusaders.  Robinson  holds  that  in  the  fourteenth 
century  William  of  BaldinseP  and  Ludolph  von 
Suchen^  recognized  the  true  site.  Felix  Fabri,^  in 
1483,  passes  Gibelin  without  comment,  but  Bir-es- 
Seba'  appears  to  have  been  pointed  out  to  him  on 
his  first  day's  journey  southwest  from  Gaza.^ 

We  may  now  follow  with  some  detail  the  principal 

'  Cap.  iii,  p.  17;  cf.  liis  map.       ^  Cap.  xxivi.         '  Cap.  x,  p.  96. 

*  Cap.  iii,  p.  24 ;  cf.  Robinson's  Researclies  (ed.  of  1856),  i,  p.  205. 

'See  his  Ilodoeporicon,  v,  in  the  Thesaurus  Canisii  (ed.  Basnage), 
vol.  iv,  p.  345. 

'  Cap.  xxxvi.  As  both  autliors  state  that  leaving  "  Beersheba  " 
they  arrived  at  Hebron  at  midday,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the 
ruined  churches  they  mention  at  the  former  place  were  at  Beit  Jib- 
rin, even  though  this  was  out  of  their  direct  route,  llobinson  took 
twelve  hours  to  ride  from  Bir-es-Seba'  to  Hebron. 

'  P.  P.  T.,  Felix  Fabri,  vol.  ii,  p.  489. 

'  Other  mistakes  common  to  the  period  are  the  placing  of  the 
Vale  of  Elah  at  Wady  Beit  Hanina,  west  of  Jerusalem  ;  tlie  locating 
of  Dothan  at  Khan  Jubb  Yusif,  north  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee;  the 
jdentificatioQ  of  Neby  Samwil  with  Shiloh,  etc. 


THE  CRUSADERS    AND    AFTER  83 

records  of  pilgrimage  from  the  taking  of  Jerusalem 
to  the  time  of  Felix  Fabri,  who,  in  1483,  ushered  in 
a  new  era  in  the  domain  of  descriptive  travel.  The 
first  record  to  be  noticed,  however,  is  one  of  military- 
operations  rather  than  of  pilgrimage. 

The  monk  Fulchre  of  Chartres,i  a  companion  of 
Duke  Robert  of  Normandy,  in  the  first  Crusade, 
succeeded  in  shaking  off  the  pious  coma  which  ap- 
pears to  be  an  invariable  condition  of  pilgrimage 
pure  and  simple.  His  eyes  seem  to  have  been  wider 
open  even  than  those  of  many  of  his  successors ;  his 
topographical  notes,  though  unfortunately  brief,  are 
to  the  point.  For  example,  he  corrects  the  current 
confusion  between  Aeon  (Acre)  and  Accaron  (Ekron) , 
pointing  out  that  the  latter  is  situated  between  Jam- 
nia  and  Azotus,  near  Ascalon.  In  Jerusalem  he  de- 
scribes the  construction  of  the  so-called  Tower  of 
David.  When,  in  a  later  excursion  with  the  Duke, 
he  made  a  tour  of  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
about  which  so  much  nonsense  was  usually  written, 
he  confines  himself  to  facts — its  dimensions,  the  ab- 
sence of  Hfe  from  its  waters,  its  bitter  taste,  which 
he  proves  by  experiment.  His  description  of  the 
ridge  of  Usdum,  which  is  a  solid  mass  of  rock-salt, 
is  vouched  for  by  Robinson  as  being  most  accurate. 
We  may  add  that  this  curious  feature  to  which  the 
mysterious  Dead  Sea  owes  much  of  its  saltness,  is 
mentioned  again  by  no  writer  till  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century. 

•  See  Gosta  Dei  per  Francos,  Ilanovijc,  IGU.  Fulcherii  Car- 
notensifl  Gesta  peregrinantium  Francorutn  cum  armis  Hierusalem 
pergentiiiiii. 


84  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

With  the  Anglo-Saxon  SsBwulf,who  wrote  in  Latin, 
the  story  of  genuine  pilgrimages  made  in  the  Cru- 
sading period  properly  begins.  ^  From  internal  evi- 
dence it  appears  that  his  visit  was  made  in  the  year 
1102  or  1103.  Toward  the  close  of  his  little  work 
he  says :  ' '  When  we  had  gone  through  every  one  of 
the  Sanctuaries  of  Jerusalem  and  its  confines,  as  far 
as  we  could,  we  went  on  board  ship  at  Joppa.  "^ 
This  statement,  taken  in  connection  with  the  very 
meagre  details  in  regard  to  places  in  the  north — 
Shechem,  Nazareth,  Cana,  Tabor,  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
Csesarea  Philippi — seems  to  indicate  that  his  actual 
travels  were  not  very  extensive.  He  landed  safe  at 
Jaffa,  but  immediately  afterward  a  fearful  storm 
arose,  causing  awful  shipwreck,  witnessed  by  him 
from  the  shore  and  described  with  much  rhetoric.  ^ 
Unfortunately,  the  hope  thus  raised  for  a  full  and  pict- 
uresque narrative  is  not  realized,  for  after  describ- 
ing the  dangers  of  the  two-days'  journey  to  Jerusa- 
lem, from  lurking  Saracens  on  the  one  hand,  and  on 
the  other  from  wild  beasts,  whose  ravages  had  strewn 
the  road  with  bodies  of  former  pilgrims,  he  lapses 
into  brevity.  We  should  except,  however,  the  full 
accounts  of  the  Temple  of  the  Lord  and  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  the  latter  having  especial  value  in  showing 
the  condition  of  the  church  before  the  additions  made 
by  the  Crusaders. ^  His  narrative  bears  ample  tes- 
timony to  the  depredations  committed  by  the  Arabs. 
In  regard  to  Bethlehem  he  states  that  ' '  There  noth- 
ing has  been  left  habitable  by  the  Saracens  as  in  all 
other  holy  places  outside  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem, 

'  P.  p.  T.,  iv.  ■'  P.  27.  3  P.  6.  *  Pp.  9-17. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  85 

except  the  Monastery  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary. ' '  ^ 
Hebron  had  been  devastated  and  Nazareth  entirely 
laid  waste.  He  notes,  however,  the  fertility  of  the 
Jericho  plain,  rich  in  all  kinds  of  palms  and  in 
all  fruits.  At  Hebron,  he  declares,  the  precious 
spices  with  which  the  bodies  of  the  patriarchs 
were  anointed  still  fill  the  nostrils  of  those  who  go 
thence.  2  On  re-embarking  at  Jaffa  he  sailed  north, 
past  the  coast  cities  as  far  as  Latakia  (Laodicea) , 
naming  thirteen  of  these,  but  placing  them  in  wrong 
order.  3 

The  date  of  the  pilgrimage  of  Daniel,  Abbot  of  a 
monastery  in  Russia,  is  fixed  with  considerable  cer- 
tainty in  the  year  1106  or  1107.'*  While  he  is  sorely 
deficient  in  historical  geography — confusing  Samaria 
with  Shechem,  Bethshean  with  Bashan,  Csesarea 
Phihppi  (Banias)  with  Csesarea  Palestina  on  the 
coast,  and  identifying  the  Capernaum  of  the  Gospels 
with  a  village  of  the  same  name  south  of  Carmel — 
he  has  some  careful  notes  on  the  physical  aspects  of 
the  land,  though  these  are  not  worked  up  into  gen- 
eralizations. As  regards  Jerusalem,  he  observes  the 
contrast  between  the  barren,  rocky  appearance  of 
the  soil  and  the  abundance  of  the  crops,  and  states 
that  the  inhabitants  are  dependent  upon  rain-water.  ^ 
The  Laura  of  Mar  Saba — where,  as  a  member  of  the 
Greek  Church  he  was  at  home — deeply  impressed 
him.  "A  dry  torrent-bed,"  he  writes,  "terrible  to 
behold  and  very  deep,  is  shut  in  by  high  walls  of 
rock,  to  which  the  cells  are  fixed  and  kept  in  place 

>P.  22.  «P.  24.  3p   27. 

*P.  P.  T.,  iv,  'Cap.  uvi. 


86  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

by  the  hand  of  God  in  a  surprising  and  fearful  man- 
ner. "1  In  contrast  with  this  sombre  picture  we 
may  quote  his  description  of  Hebron :  "At  present 
the  land  is  truly  the  land  promised  by  God,  and  en- 
dowed by  him  with  all  good  things.  Wheat,  vines, 
ohves  and  all  kinds  of  vegetables  grow  in  abundance ; 
sheep  and  other  animals  bring  forth  twice  a  year ; 
large  numbers  of  bees  make  their  hives  in  the  rocks 
of  these  beautiful  mountains;  their  slopes  are  cov- 
ered with  vineyards  and  with  an  infinite  number  of 
fruit-trees — oKves,  figs,  carob,  apple,  cherry,  and 
other  trees.  ...  No  place  under  the  sky  equals 
it."  2 

Daniel's  account  is  three  times  as  long  as  Sae- 
wulf's  and  fuller  of  personal  touches.  He  explicitly 
states  that  his  descriptions  are  based  on  actual  ob- 
servation. In  cases  where  he  is  dependent  on  others 
he  makes  frank  acknowledgment.  But  his  distances 
and  dimensions  are  not  accurate.  Haste,  the  usual 
bane  of  travellers,  was  not  forced  upon  him;  he  was 
able  to  visit  the  Jordan  four  times,  he  stayed  ten 
days  on  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  and  re- 
mained four  days  at  Acre.  He  recognized  the  value 
of  good  guides  for  Jerusalem,  whom  he  paid  as  Hb- 
erally  as  his  means  would  allow,  and  was  fortunate 
in  having  for  dragoman  on  his  northern  trip  an  aged 
Monk  said  to  be  well  versed  in  the  Scriptures — bet- 
ter versed,  we  may  hope,  than  our  Abbot,  who  makes 
many  blunders  in  the  use  of  Holy  Writ.  Though  a 
member  of  the  Eastern  Church,  he  was  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  Western  Latins,  and  obtained  per- 

'  Cap.  iixviii.  *  Cap.  liii. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  87 

mission  from  Baldwin  I.,  who  was  planning  an  ex- 
pedition to  the  regions  of  Damascus,  to  accom- 
pany the  army  as  far  as  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  He 
was  thus  on  this  trip  protected  from  the  Saracens, 
whose  presence  in  the  forests  between  Bethlehem 
and  Hebron  had  given  him  much  uneasiness  when 
passing  between  those  places,  and  whose  occu- 
pation of  the  Lebanon  prevented  his  journeying 
thither. 

The  interest  of  his  visit  to  Jerusalem  naturally 
centres  in  the  Temple  and  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  In  regard  to  the  "  Templum  Domini  " 
he  states  that  the  present  church  was  built  by  * '  the 
chief  of  the  Saracens  named  Amor, ' '  and  that  noth- 
ing is  left  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon  but  the  founda- 
tions. ^  The  church  of  the  Resurrection  of  Our  Lord 
was  open  to  the  sky.  The  Holy  Sepulchre  itself  was 
*'a  small  cave  hewn  in  the  rock,  having  an  entrance 
so  low  that  a  man  can  scarce  get  through  by  going 
on  bended  knees ;  .  .  .  a  sort  of  bench  cut  in  the 
rock  of  the  cavern  upon  which  the  body  of  our  Lord 
was  laid  (is)  now  covered  by  marble  slabs. ' '  2 
Though  the  Crusaders  had  been  in  possession  of 
Jerusalem  for  eight  or  nine  years,  the  Greeks  still 
had  charge  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  and 
kept  the  keys. 

During  the  twelfth  century  it  became  the  fashion 
to  compile  anonymous  guide-books  to  the  Holy  Land, 
ranging  in  length  from  brief  tracts,  containing  less 
than  1,000  words,  to  more  elaborate  works  covering 
from  thirty  to  fifty  pages  in  the  Palestine  Pilgrims' 

'  Cap.  xvii.  ^  Cap.  x. 


88  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

Text  series.  ^  As  a  rule  these  are  written  imperson- 
ally, and  even  when  the  pronoun  "  I "  occurs,  the 
subjective  note  is  entirely  lacking.  The  largest  of 
these  guide-books  is  the  work  called  Fetellus,  or 
Eugesippus-Fretellus,  after  the  name  of  one  of  its 
early  editors.  Much  of  the  matter  contained  is  re- 
peated by  later  travellers,  such  as  John  of  Wiirzburg 
and  Theoderich,  and  occurs  also  in  other  guide- 
books, which  clearly  belong  to  the  twelfth  century, 
though  they  cannot  be  more  closely  dated;  hence  it 
is  suggested  by  Tobler  that  all  these  authors,  includ- 
ing Fetellus,  follow  some  "Old  Compendium"  as  a 
common  source.  ^ 

The  tract  which  we  may  conveniently  call  Fetellus 
is  dated  at  about  1130  by  an  allusion  to  a  portion  of 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  then  in  process  of 
construction  to  the  east  of  Calvary,  namely,  the 
Latin  Choir  of  the  Canons — the  present  Greek 
Church.  As  we  have  previously  stated,  it  contains 
about  110  names  of  Scriptural  places  in  Syria  and 
Palestine,  besides  a  Hst  of  the  stations  in  the  Desert 
of  the  "Wanderings  of  the  Children  of  Israel,  accom- 
panied by  a  very  fanciful  etymology.  Thus  we  find 
not  only  the  mention  of  the  sites  ordinarily  visited 
by  pilgrims,  with  distances  between  sites,  references 
to  the  Scriptural  events  for  which  they  were  cele- 
brated, and  legends  of  a  marvellous  character,  but 

■  Vol.  vi  contains  translations  of  the  texts  of  nine  anony- 
mous pilgrims,  numhered  from  I  to  VIII,  thus  following  the 
enumeration  of  Tobler,  who  distinguislies  V '  from  V  ^  All 
but  the  first  belong  to  the  twelfth  century.  For  Fetellus,  see 
vol.  V. 

^  See  j)r('face  to  his  edition  of  Fetellus. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  89 

we  may  note  the  beginnings  of  an  attempt  to  iden- 
tify Biblical  sites  connected  with  events  of  minor 
importance,  many  of  which  had  been  unnoticed  since 
the  time  of  St.  Jerome.  Among  these  are  Timnath- 
heres,  the  city  and  burial-place  of  Joshua;  Keilali 
and  Ziph,  associated  with  the  wanderings  of  David; 
Baal  Meon,  a  town  of  Reuben;  Kirjath  Sepher,  the 
city  of  Letters;  Gath-hepher,  the  city  of  Jonah; 
Engedi,  the  Ascent  of  Gur,  Libnah,  Madeba, 
Tibnah,  etc.  Some  of  these  names  appear  under 
strange  guises,  such  as  Gethocopher  for  Gath- 
hepher.  The  author's  sense  of  arrangement  is  far 
from  adequate.  There  is  no  broad  presentation  of 
the  main  geographical  features  of  the  land  as  a 
whole.  While  places  in  the  same  district  are  usu- 
ally grouped  together,  his  passing  from  district  to 
district  is  somewhat  arbitrary,  and  at  times  he  re- 
turns to  a  part  of  the  land  already  described  in  order 
to  add  previously  omitted  details.  In  addition  to 
the  errors  common  to  the  period,  Fetellus  makes 
some  mistakes  on  his  own  account,  such  as  the  iden- 
tification of  Eleutheropolis  with  Emmaus;  the  plac- 
ing of  Malbech  (by  which  he  clearly  means  to  indi- 
cate Baalbec)  one  mile  from  Damascus;  and  the 
confusion  of  Ribleh — actually  not  far  north  of  Baal- 
bec— with  Antioch.i  Among  other  strange  legends 
and  traditions  he  relates  that  Adam  was  formed  by 
the  Creator  at  Hebron, ^  that  owing  to  the  clearness 
of  the  Dead  Sea  the  ruins  of  the  submerged  cities 
may  still  be  seen,^  and  that  in  the  Wilderness  of 
Hor  stands  Mt.  Eden,  whose  summit  is  of  miracu- 

'  Uepeiitcd  by  later  writers.  '  1'.  8.  '  T.  13. 


90  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

lous  beauty  and  fertility.  ^  Still,  with  all  his  blun- 
ders, Fetellus  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in 
the  study  of  Biblical  geography  for  its  own  sake. 

The  itineraries  of  the  two  German  pilgrims,  John, 
priest  of  Wiirzburg,  and  Theoderich,  perhaps  Bishop 
of  the  same  place,  were  written  at  a  period  when 
the  Crusaders  had  made  their  many  alterations  in 
the  Holy  Places.  Hence,  of  especial  value  are  their 
accounts  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  and  of 
the  Templum  Domini,  into  which,  as  Daniel  has  told 
us,  the  Mohammedan  mosque  had  been  transformed. 
In  matters  of  geography  they  cover  less  ground 
than  does  Fetellus,  mentioning  only  between  seven- 
ty-five and  eighty  Scriptural  sites  each.  From  in- 
ternal evidence  it  appears  that  John's  pilgrimage 
was  made  between  the  years  1160  and  1170,  Theo- 
derich's  in  the  year  1172.  Of  these  two  fellow- 
towns-men,  Theoderich  is  the  superior,  as  well  for 
his  breadth  of  view  as  for  his  appreciation  of  detail. 
We  may  then  consider  him  first.  Up  to  this  time 
we  have  sought  in  vain  for  any  attempt  on  the  part 
of  the  pilgrims  to  define  the  broad  outlines  of  the 
land,  but  now  the  mere  catalogue  of  names  and  dis- 
tances begins  to  be  accompanied  by  a  larger  sense  of 
topography.  True,  we  find  no  more  than  a  begin- 
ning. Theoderich  is  first  and  foremost  a  pilgrim; 
the  aim  of  his  journey  is  principally  religious;  with 
him  geography  furnishes  merely  a  framework  for  the 
Holy  Places,  but  we  must  credit  him  with  the  first 
recognition,  on  the  part  of  mediaeval  western  writers, 
of  the  necessity  of  such  a  framework.     Foreshadow- 

»  p.  19. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  91 

ings  of  the  scientific  methods  of  Robinson  and  Con- 
dor are  shown  in  his  first  chapter,  entitled  ' '  The  ruin 
of  the  Land  and  the  changing  of  its  names."  In 
this  he  clears  the  ground,  as  it  were,  noting  ' '  that 
the  moderns,  being  strangers  in  the  land,  and  not  its 
original  inhabitants,  know  the  names  of  a  few  places 
only,"  and  "that  although  some  traces  of  certain 
places  still  remain,  yet  nearly  all  their  names  have  been 
altered, ' '  After  stating  that  the  land  of  Canaan  is 
divided  into  three  provinces,  Galilee,  Samaria,  and 
Judea,  he  gives  correctly  the  boundaries  of  Judea, 
and  adds,  ' '  Now  Judea  is  for  the  most  part  moun- 
tainous, and  round  about  the  Holy  City  rises  into 
very  lofty  ranges,  sloping  on  all  sides  down  to  its 
aforesaid  boundaries,  even  as  on  the  other  hand  one 
ascends  to  it  from  these.  These  mountains  are  in 
some  places  rough  with  masses  of  the  hardest  rock, 
in  others  are  adorned  with  stone  excellently  fitted  to 
be  cut  into  ashlar,  and  in  others  are  beautiful  with 
white,  red,  and  variegated  marble.  But  wherever 
any  patches  of  earth  are  found,  among  these  masses 
of  rock,  the  land  is  seen  to  be  fit  for  the  production 
of  every  kind  of  fruit — wherefore  we  have  seen  the 
hills  and  mountains  covered  with  vineyards  and  plan- 
tations of  olive-trees  and  fig-trees,  and  the  valleys 
abounding  with  corn  and  garden  produce."  ^  What 
an  advance  upon  the  topographical  notices  of  former 
Christian  writers  is  this  brief  but  discriminating 
description!  Again,  in  chapter  iii,  we  find  the 
hills  and  valleys  of  Jerusalem,  all  of  which  have 
been  catalogued  by  former  pilgrims,  now  for  the  first 

'  Cap.  ii. 


92  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

time  co-ordinated  and  brought  into  coherence.  He 
tells  us  that  the  Holy  City,  though  built  upon  a 
mountain,  has  about  it  ridges  higher  than  itself,  the 
highest  of  which  is  the  Mount  of  Olives.  He  traces 
the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  from  its  beginning  at  the 
north  of  the  town,  past  the  Church  of  the  Virgin 
near  Gethsemane,  past  the  tomb  of  Jehoshaphat, 
down  to  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  where  it  is  joined  by 
the  valley  of  Hinnom,  which  bends  around  between 
Mount  Zion  and  Aceldama  and  thus  with  the  first 
valley  '  *  embraces  the  two  sides  of  the  city  with  a 
very  deep  ravine."  In  fixing  localities  he  shows 
exactness.  For  example,  before  mentioning  the  Pool 
of  Siloam  he  carefully  describes  the  route  to  it  from 
the  Temple.  Noticing  the  tradition  that  the  water 
from  this  Pool  comes  underground  from  Shiloh  (then 
wrongly  identified  with  Neby  Samwil,  some  five  miles 
to  the  north),  he  gives  the  topographical  objections 
against  the  view,  but,  with  a  shrewd  instinct  warn- 
ing him  against  dogmatism,  declines  to  pronounce 
any  decision.  ^  Thus  in  more  ways  than  one  Theo- 
derich  shows  himself  to  be  the  prototype  of  the 
modern  explorer. 

In  his  introduction,  Theoderich  frankly  states  that 
he  relates  not  only  what  he  has  seen  himself,  but 
what  he  has  gathered  from  the  truthful  tales  of 
other  men.  His  account  is  not  in  the  form  of  a  con- 
tinuous narrative,  but  we  infer  that  his  personal  ex- 
periences were  confined  to  Jerusalem,  with  the  sites 
easily  reached  from  that  centre,  and  to  the  places 
ordinarily  visited  in  Samaria  and  Galilee.     Less  ac- 

'  Cap.  xix. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  93 

cessible  districts  are  mentioned  briefly  and  unintel- 
ligently.  We  miss  the  personal  touches  which 
brighten  the  parts  of  the  narrative  dealing  with 
places  that  he  explicitly  states  that  he  saw.  Take 
for  an  example  of  these  his  picturesque  description 
of  the  view  from  Quarantania  or  the  Mount  of  Temp- 
tation. From  this  rocky  height,  as  the  sun  was  set- 
ting, he  looked  down  over  the  Jericho  plain,  swarm- 
ing with  tens  of  thousands  of  pilgrims,  all  carrying 
torches,  in  full  sight  of  the  Saracens  lurking  in  the 
trans-Jordanic  mountains.  ^  Or  read  his  account  of 
the  journey  from  Jerusalem  to  Shechem  :  "  As  we 
passed  along  this  road  we  were  met  by  a  multitude 
of  Saracens,  who  were  proceeding  with  bullocks  and 
asses  to  plow  up  a  great  and  beauteous  plain,  and 
who,  by  the  hideous  yells  they  thundered  forth,  as  is 
their  wont  when  they  set  about  any  work,  struck  no 
small  terror  into  us.  Indeed,  numbers  of  infidels 
dwell  there  throughout  the  country,  as  well  in  the 
cities  and  castles  as  in  the  villages,  and  till  the 
ground  under  the  safe  conduct  of  the  king  of  Jeru- 
salem, or  that  of  the  Templars  or  Hospitallers. "  2 
This  little  picture  makes  us  realize  that  though  the 
Holy  Land  of  the  twelfth  century  was  under  Western 
masters,  its  ordinary  population  remained  largely 
Eastern. 

Notwithstanding  Theoderich's  instinct  for  scien- 
tific treatment,  shown  at  least  in  germ,  the  marvel- 
lous is  not  without  its  attractions  for  him.  He  gives 
an  ear  to  the  fairy-tales  told  about  the  cities  sub- 
merged in  the  Doad  Sea.      ' '  Once  a  year  on  the  an- 

'  Cap   XXX.  ^  Cap.  xli. 


94  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

niversary  of  the  destruction  of  these  cities,  stones 
and  wood  and  things  of  all  kinds  are  seen  to  float 
upon  the  surface  of  the  Lake,  in  testimony  of  their 
ruin. ' '  He  also  repeats  the  story  that  the  pillar  of 
salt  into  which  Lot's  wife  was  turned,  increases  and 
diminishes  in  size  with  the  waxing  and  the  waning 
of  the  moon.i 

Theoderich's  description  of  the  Holy  Places  in 
Jerusalem  is  much  fuller  than  any  of  those  we  have 
yet  considered,  though  not  as  exhaustive  as  that  of 
John  of  Wiirzburg ;  but  his  assiduity  in  copying  the 
Latin  inscriptions  in  the  Crusading  churches  can 
hardly  be  set  down  to  an  archaeological  curiosity. 
This  seems  to  have  been  quite  lacking,  as,  in  deal- 
ing with  the  Temple,  though  he  gives  a  resume  of 
its  history,  he  does  not  notice  the  immense  stones 
of  the  Enclosure. 

For  John,  priest  of  Wiirzburg, 2  interest  in  the 
Holy  Land  centres  directly  in  the  life  of  Christ. 
Thus  he  states  that  his  description  starts  with  Naz- 
areth, because  in  this  city  was  begun  the  Redemp- 
tion of  the  world  through  Our  Lord's  Incarnation. 
This  notice,  however,  is  brief.  He  hastens  at  once 
to  Jerusalem,  to  the  vicinity  of  which,  as  he  tells 
us  in  his  introduction,  he  proposes  to  confine  him- 
self. Following  his  motif,  the  account  of  the  places 
connected  with  The  Passion  is  pleasantly  interwoven 
with  a  fairly  continuous  narrative  of  the  events, 
rich  in  Scripture  quotations.  Theoderich,  too,  at- 
tempts this  method,  but  less  consistently.  John  is 
not  satisfied  with  the  mere  mention  of  tradition ;  he 

'  Cap.  XXXV.  ^  P.  P.  T.,  vol.  v. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  95 

must  discuss  its  historical  basis.  When  shown  the 
hair  of  Mary  Magdalene  in  a  glass  case,  he  tries  to 
harmonize  the  various  accounts  of  the  Alabaster 
Box,  and  questions  whether  more  than  one  Mary  was 
involved.  ^  He  explains  that  Golgotha,  or  the  place 
of  a  skull,  was  so  called,  because  criminals,  to  be 
there  executed,  had  their  hair  cut  off  and  their 
skulls  were  bleached  in  the  wind.  2  That  he  took 
especial  pride  in  his  lengthy  review  of  the  history  and 
traditions  connected  with  the  Temple  may  be  legiti- 
mately inferred  from  its  closing  sentence :  * '  Let  this 
description  of  the  aforesaid  Temple  and  its  surround- 
ings suffice;  we  shall  not  be  envious  of  any  one  who 
can  write  a  better. ' '  ^  The  list  of  Latin  inscriptions 
copied  by  him  in  the  Holy  Places  is  fuller  even  than 
Theoderich's. 

John's  introductory  statement,  limiting  his  ac- 
count to  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  makes  us  uncer- 
tain which  of  the  many  other  sites  briefly  mentioned 
were  actually  visited  by  him.  His  catalogue  of  the 
more  distant  places  reads  like  a  compilation,  and  it 
seems  safe  to  assume  that  his  travels  did  not  take 
him  farther  north  than  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  where  his 
hst  of  sites  is  full.  In  general  the  distances  given 
between  places  are  inexact. 

In  passing  from  the  records  of  these  two  German 
pilgrims  to  "The  Brief  Description  of  Phocas," 
native  of  Crete,  and  later  Greek  priest  at  Patmos, 
we  seem  to  be  making  a  transition  from  chronicle  to 
literature.'*      His  information  is  neither  extensive 

'  Cap.  vi.  '^  Ciq).  x.  *  Cap.  iv. 

*  P.  p.  T.,  vol.  V.     Ilis  pilgrimage  was  made  in  the  year  1185. 


96  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

nor  especially  valuable,  but  he  presents  it  in  a  rapid 
and  flowing  style,  rich  in  feeling  and  color.  His 
best  touches  are  given  to  places  north  of  Judea: 
Antioch,  the  Groves  of  Daphne,  the  ice-cold  Springs 
of  Lebanon,  the  lofty  water-towers  of  Tyre,  disease- 
haunted  Acre.  Especially  pretty  is  the  picture  of 
the  fair  harbor  of  Beyrout  ' '  wrought  by  art  and  en- 
bosomed  in  the  city  in  the  form  of  a  half -moon, ' '  at 
the  two  extremities  of  which  ' '  are  placed  as  horns 
two  great  towers,  from  one  of  which  a  chain  is 
drawn  across  to  the  other  and  shuts  in  the  ships 
within  the  harbor. "  ^  A  predilection  toward  the 
aesthetic  leads  him  to  devote  a  long  page  to  the 
paintings  in  the  church  at  Bethlehem:  as  you  read 
you  seem  to  see  them.  We  regret  that  his  power  of 
portrayal  is  not  more  in  evidence  when  he  reaches 
the  Holy  City.  Here  the  pilgrim-coma  falls  upon 
him;  his  topography  is  bald,  confused.  Even  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  and  the  Templum  Domini  are  passed 
over  with  cursory  notices.  It  is  interesting  to  find, 
however,  that  in  these  times  of  Latin  predominance, 
the  Byzantine  Emperor,  Manuel  Comnenus  (under 
whom  Phocas  once  served  as  a  soldier),  adorned  the 
rock  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  with  solid  gold,  and  fur- 
nished the  mosaics  which  may  be  seen  to-day  in  the 
Basilica  at  Bethlehem.  2  Once  away  from  Jerusalem 
Phocas 's  style  brightens  again.  The  monasteries  at 
Mar  Saba  and  in  the  Wady  el  Kelt  are  sketched  with 
spirit.  3  The  tract  ends  all  too  soon  with  these 
words,  at  once  playful  and  poetic :  "If  any  reader 
shall  think  this  a  useful  work,  I  shall  consider  my- 

'  Cap.  V.  ^  Cap.  xiv.  ^  Caps,  xvi  and  xix. 


THE    CRUSADERS    AND    AFTER  97 

self  to  be  recompensed  for  my  toil  and  amply  re- 
warded; if  not,  let  this  my  child  return  to  me  who 
begat  it,  and  by  its  prattling  remind  me  of  those 
Holy  Places,  so  that  I  may  be  sweetly  refreshed  in 
my  imagination  by  the  remembrance  of  them."  i 

From  this  picturesque  tract,  interesting  more 
for  its  style  than  for  its  actual  information,  we 
turn  to  the  business-like  account  of  the  Anonymous 
Pilgrim  (V^  in  Tobler's  enumeration)  2  written  on 
the  basis  of  a  journey  taken  before  1187.  This 
fragment,  barely  3,000  words  long,  is  a  little  model  of 
concentration.  After  giving  the  boundaries  of  Pal- 
estine, the  author  takes  up  the  religion  of  the  in- 
habitants. Dividing  them  roughly  into  Moslems  and 
Christians,  he  next  enumerates,  and  in  some  cases 
characterizes,  the  Eastern  sects:  Greeks,  Syrians, 
Armenians,  Gregorians,  Jacobites,  and  Nestorians. 
Various  nationalities  are  recognized  among  the 
Latins;  their  hierarchical  organization  is  touched 
upon  with  considerable  detail.  His  notice  of  the 
Holy  Places  is  prefaced  by  the  remark  that  ' '  all  the 
Land  is  hallowed  because  Christ  walked  in  it." 
Though  he  signalizes  the  events  for  which  each  place 
is  celebrated,  references  to  relics  are  omitted.  He 
next  turns  to  the  mountains  of  the  lands;  its  animals, 
plants  and  fruits.  The  systematic  account  closes 
with  a  list  of  the  chief  cities,  including  ' '  those  that 
have  changed  their  names."  In  the  last  sentence, 
which  breaks  off  abruptly, ^  a  miraculous  rock  at 
Jaffa  is  mentioned.     Comparing  the  analysis  of  this 

'  Cap.  xxxii.  ^  V.  V.  T. ,  vol.  vi. 

'  But  si-e  note  in  tlic  V.  P.  T.  edition. 


98  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

little  work  with  former  accounts,  we  note  a  widen- 
ing of  interest,  especially  of  a  human  interest.  Our 
pilgrim  desires  to  satisfy  a  curiosity,  or  at  least  to 
create  a  curiosity  in  regard  to  Christians  holding  the 
faith  in  a  non-Latin  form.  Again  his  notice  of  the 
flora  and  fauna,  though  brief  and  fanciful,  signalizes 
a  fresh  point  of  view. 

Apart  from  the  guide-books  and  itineraries,  the 
twelfth-century  readers  of  the  West  were  able  to 
extract  considerable  information  regarding  Palestine 
from  the  "History  of  the  Crusades"  by  William, 
Archbishop  of  Tyre,  who  began  his  work  in  1183.^ 
Naturally  this  information  is  only  incidental  to  the 
historical  narrative.  ^  A  reference  to  the  term  Syria 
in  connection  with  a  description  of  Tyre  leads  to  a 
somewhat  elaborate  excursus  on  geographical  no- 
menclature.^ Syria,  he  says,  may  be  used  in  a  broad 
sense  for  the  whole  stretch  of  country  from  the 
Tigris  to  Egypt,  from  Cilicia  to  the  Red  Sea,  and 
also  for  its  various  parts.  First  come  Mesopotamia, 
Syria,  and  Coele-Syria.  The  latter  touches  on  Phoe- 
nicia, which  is  subdivided  into  Phoenicia  Maritima 
and  Phoenicia  Libanica.  This  latter  province  is  also 
called  Syria  and  is  also  subdivided  into  two  parts — 
Damascena  and  Emisena,  from  the  two  cities  Damas- 
cus and  Emesa.     Larger  Syria  also   includes  two 

*  Latin  text  found  in  the  Gesta  Dei :  Historia  Rerum  in  Partibus 
Transmarinis,  etc.  Edita  a  venerabili  Willermo  Tyrensi  Arclii- 
episcopo. 

'  Note,  liowever,  that  in  the  lists  of  dioceses  subject  to  the 
"Apostolic  Seat  of  Antioch,"  we  find  255  names  of  places  sys- 
tematically arranged  (Lib.  XXIII). 

^  Lib.  XIII,  cap.  ii. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  99 

Arabias,  Idumea  and  three  Palestines.^  As  these 
terms  were  evidently  but  vaguely  conceived  by  the 
Archbishop,  his  information  gives  little  illumination, 
but  it  is  noteworthy  as  an  indication  of  a  growing 
curiosity  regarding  broad  geographical  divisions. 

William's  topographical  notice  of  Jerusalem  is  in- 
ferior to  Theoderich's,  but  he  presents  one  of  the 
earliest  Western  sketches  of  Damascus,  with  its 
great  stream  rushing  out  from  the  mountain-gorge, 
and  at  once  carried  off  into  canals  which  create  a 
circle  of  fertility  in  the  arid  plain. 2  Apart  from  an 
account  of  the  Assassins  there  is,  in  his  history, 
little  regarding  the  Religions  of  the  land. 

Before  passing  on  to  the  writers  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  we  must  briefly  note  the  account  of  a  jour- 
ney to  Palestine  taken,  in  1163,  by  a  traveller  of 
quite  another  order,  namely,  the  Spanish  Rabbi,  Ben- 
jamin of  Tudela.3  The  shrine  at  Jerusalem,  which 
was  the  desire  of  all  Christian  pilgrims,  he  refers  to 
contemptuously  as  the  sepulchre  of  "that  man." 
On  the  other  hand,  in  each  place  of  importance  he 
mentions  the  synagogues  and  the  number  of  Jews, 
often  naming  the  leading  Rabbis.  An  interest  in 
the  history  of  his  people  leads  him  to  attempt  the 
identification  of  sites,  often  erroneously:     Gath  is 

'  lie  adopts  tlie  division  into  the  three  provinces  of  Palcstina 
Prima,  Secunda,  and  Tertia,  which,  before  the  Crusades,  were  sub- 
ject to  the  Greek  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  Their  capitals  were 
Jerusalem,  Ca;sarea  Maritima,  and  Scythopolis,  respectively.  (See 
Lib.  VIII,  cap.  i). 

^  Lib.  XVII,  cap.  iii. 

'See  the  critic^a!  edition  of  A.  Ashor :  Benjamin  of  Tudela's 
Itinerary,  Berlin,  1840-41,  2  vols. 


100  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

confused  with  Caesarea;  Gath-hepher  with  Haifa. 
However,  he  places  the  rivers  Abana  and  Pharpar  in 
their  right  relation  to  Damascus,  and  comes  near  the 
mark  in  locating  Mareshah  (unnoticed  since  the  time 
of  Jerome)  at  Beit  Jibrin,  This  identification  is  in- 
teresting in  view  of  our  recent  excavations  at  Tell- 
Sandahannah,  only  two  miles  south  of  Beit  Jibrin, 
where  the  Greek  town  of  Marissa  was  found  to  over- 
lay the  ruins  of  Mareshah. 

Like  the  Greek  Phocas,  Benjamin  entered  Syria 
from  the  north.  In  describing  the  towns  in  order, 
beginning  with  Antioch,  he  covers  many  points  un- 
touched by  the  ordinary  Christian  traveller,  such  as 
a  recent  earthquake  which  had  devastated  Tripoli; 
the  ruins  of  a  heathen  Temple  at  Jebeil,  the  city  of 
the  Giblites;  the  newly  established  sect  of  the 
Druzes,  who  inhabited  the  rocky  heights  above  Sidon ; 
the  sect  of  the  Samaritans  at  Shechem.  At  Jerusa- 
lem he  marvels  at  the  huge  stones  of  the  temple 
area.i  He  describes  the  accidental  discovery,  fifteen 
years  before  his  visit,  of  the  Sepulchre  of  David  on 
Mt.  Zion,  by  two  workmen,  who,  in  quarrying  stones 
from  old  foundations,  came  upon  a  cave  which  opened 
into  a  large  hall  adorned  with  gold  and  silver  and 
full  of  locked  chests.  But  a  sudden  blast  of  wind 
threw  them  almost  lifeless  on  the  ground,  nor,  after 
their  escape,  could  they  be  persuaded  again  to  enter 
the  cave,  which,  by  ecclesiastical  orders,  was  soon 
walled  up.  2  This  seems  to  be  the  revival  of  a  story 
as  old  as  the  time  of  Herod,  who,  as  we  learn  from 
Josephus,  made  an  attempt  to  rob  the  Sepulchre  of 

•  Vol.  i,  p.  70.  -  Ibid.,  p.  72. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  101 

David,  with  disastrous  results.  The  true  Sepulchres 
of  the  Patriarchs,  however,  might  be  seen  at  Hebron, 
so  Benjamin  declares,  by  any  Jew  who  volunteered 
to  pay  the  guardian ;  while  penurious  pilgrims  had 
palmed  off  on  them  the  spurious  tombs  erected  above 
by  the  Christians,  and  even  thus  were  subject  to  ex- 
tortion. ^  Our  Rabbi's  wanderings  in  Palestine  were 
very  extensive,  taking  him  as  far  as  Tadmor  in  the 
"Wilderness.  2 

We  now  come  to  the  writers  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  close  of  which  saw  the  final  triumph  of 
the  Crescent  over  the  Cross. 

Magister  Thetmar,  or  Thietmar,^  visited  Palestine 
in  1217,  thirty  years  after  the  battle  of  Hattin,  dur- 
ing a  term  of  truce  between  the  Christians  and  the 
Saracens.  It  is  noteworthy  that  we  owe  our  best 
mediaeval  accounts  of  the  country  to  travellers  or 
residents  who  wrote  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  The 
world's  progress  in  the  art  of  observation  and  in  free 
expression  has  something  to  do  with  this,  but  it  seems 
also  likely  that  interest  in  the  Holy  Land  was  quick- 
ened by  the  loss  of  so  great  a  part  of  it.     Thietmar, 

'  Vol.  i,  p.  76. 

^  The  work  of  R.  Petachia  of  Ratisbonne,  who  travelled  exten- 
sively in  1175-80,  is  of  far  less  value  than  that  of  his  contemporary 
Benjamin.  lie  shares  with  the  latter  the  object  of  studying  the 
condition  of  his  Hebrew  brethren  in  various  hinds,  including  Syria 
and  Palestine.  (See  Tour  du  Monde  ou  Voyages  de  R.  Petachia. 
Carmoly,  Paris,  1831.) 

^  Manuscript  accounts  of  his  travels  are  variously  entitled  :  Epis- 
tola  Magistri  Thetmari  ;  Thetmari  itinerariun)  in  Terrain  Sanctani ; 
Thetniari  pcregrinatio  in  Terram  Sanctam.  The  edition  liere  con- 
sultffl  is  tliat  of  Saint  Geiiois,  found  in  the  Menioires  de  L'Academie 
Royale  de  liclgi(|iic,  Tijuie  XXVI,  Bruxellc^,  1851. 


102  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

indeed,  passes  over  Jerusalem  in  a  few  lines,  as  hav- 
ing been  described  by  so  many,  though  his  cursory 
treatment  may  also  be  due  to  the  difficulty  of  detailed 
exploration  at  a  time  when  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre — as  he  tells  us — remained  always  shut, 
dark  within  and  with  no  sign  of  respect  without. 
But  he  amply  makes  up  for  his  silence  here  by  his 
full  account  of  Damascus,  glowing  with  local  color.  ^ 
Paradise  he  says  it  may  be  called,  with  its  gardens 
irrigated  by  aqueducts,  rich  in  trees  of  every  sort  and 
flowers  of  every  hue,  vocal  even  in  November  with 
the  nightingale's  notes.  In  the  cooks'  shops,  he  tells 
us,  you  may  have  your  choice  of  twenty  kinds  of 
bread,  and  you  need  not  be  afraid  that  the  stale  food 
of  yesterday  will  be  palmed  off  on  you  as  fresh,  for 
the  sellers  are  forced  by  fear  of  a  fine  to  tell  the 
truth  about  the  baking.  Virtue  weighs  upon  the 
people  as  lightly  as  doctrine ;  there  is  no  intolerance ; 
each  nation — for  there  are  many  of  these — can  fol- 
low its  trade  and  its  religion  here  quietly.  Surely 
here  is  a  livelier  note  than  we  have  heard  from  the 
West  before!  For  vividness  this  little  picture  of 
Damascus  compares  favorably  with  that  of  Ludolph 
von  Suchem  written  some  130  years  later. 

From  Damascus  Thietmar's  story  leaps  to  Bagh- 
dad, with  no  account  of  the  way  thither.  But  his 
individual  touch  is  again  felt  as  we  follow  his  jour- 
ney from  Jerusalem  to  Mt.  Sinai.  The  awful  gorge 
of  the  Arnon — a  veritable  canon — fills  him  with  ter- 
ror: never  had  he  seen  such  precipices!  Passing 
through  Kerak  ("latine  Petra,"  he  says)  he  comes 

>  Pp.  23-29. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AN'D    AFTER  103 

to  Shobek,  the  Montreal  of  the  Crusaders,  where  a 
French  widow  lady  fits  him  out  for  the  desert  jour- 
ney with  biscuit  (pan em  biscoctum),  cheese,  wine, 
and  fruit,  and  procures  for  him  cameleers.  An  un- 
consciously pathetic  touch,  this.  As  we  read  his 
brief  lines,  a  dozen  questions  come  rushing  up.  How 
long  since  the  widow  lady  had  seen  a  face  from 
Europe?  What  kept  her  in  the  inaccessible  wilds, 
east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  among  the  enemies  of  her 
people?  Did  Thietmar's  visit  bring  her  more  regret 
than  joy?  On  these  points  the  Master  tells  us 
nothing,  but  passes  on  his  way  to  Sinai,  stopping  to 
marvel  at  a  rock-cut  city  which  he  does  not  know  to 
be  the  real  Petra.  ^ 

Perhaps  the  chief  interest  in  Thietmar's  work  lies 
in  his  voicing  the  desire,  which  had  begun  to  stir 
the  West,  to  get  at  the  real  facts  regarding  Islam 
and  its  Prophet.  Briefly,  but  in  general  fairly,  he 
gives  the  Moslems'  conception  of  Jesus,  stating  that 
they  believe  in  his  Virgin-birth,  his  miracles,  his  po- 
sition as  Prophet  next  to  Mohammed,  but  that  they 
deny  his  baptism,  crucifixion,  death,  burial,  resur- 
rection and  Divine  Sonship.  Mohammed's  life  is 
sketched  and  his  teaching  regarding  Paradise,  polyg- 
amy, circumcision,  and  fasting  is  touched  upon. 2 

The  historian  Jacques  de  Vitry  was  born  about  the 
time  that  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Saladin,  and  was 
resident  in  the  land  for  almost  ten  years  after  his  con- 

'  The  following  description,  p.  42,  must  apply  to  Petra  :  In 
rupibus  istis  inveni  eicisas  in  petra  niansiones  honiinuin  piilchras 
valde  et  ornatas,  palatia  et  caniiuatas,  oratoria  et  cameras  et  omnia 
comniodti  qux»  valent  ad  usus  hominum. 

'  Pp.  51  and  54-55. 


104  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

secration  as  Bishop  of  Acre  in  1217.  "  His  History ' '  ^ 
contains  more  passages  directly  purporting  to  give 
information  in  regard  to  the  land  than  does  that  of 
William  of  Tyre.  Especially  full  are  his  notices  of 
the  various  Christian  sects.  It  is  difficult  to  say 
which  he  regards  with  greater  contempt,  the  mixed 
race  of  the  Pullani,  descendants  of  the  first  Crusad- 
ers by  local  marriages,  or  the  native  Greek  Chris- 
tians. Against  these  two  classes  he  hurls  a  volley 
of  opprobrious  epithets,  hardly  fitting  his  dignity  as 
Bishop.  The  former  he  accuses  of  luxury,  effem- 
inateness,  cowardice,  jealousy,  and  ill-treatment  of 
their  wives  comparable  with  that  of  the  Saracens; 
the  latter  he  calls  double-dealers,  cunning  foxes, 
liars,  turncoats,  traitors,  men  who  are  easily  bribed, 
who  say  one  thing  and  mean  another,  who  think 
nothing  of  theft  and  robbery.  2  To  Mohammedanism 
he  appears  to  have  given  no  serious  consideration  as, 
with  a  total  disregard  for  its  iconoclastic  principles, 
he  says:  "When  they  (the  Saracens)  possess  the 
Holy  City,  they  set  up  the  Image  of  Mohammed  in 
the  Temple.  "3  Toward  the  close  of  the  work 
we  find  a  series  of  chapters  which  at  first  sight  ap- 
pear to  indicate  that  at  last  we  are  to  have  a  good 
physical  description  of  the  land.^  But,  viewed 
more  closely,  his  observations  are  found  to  lack 
broad  outlines,  while  his  details  regarding  Palestine 
are  mixed  up  with  stories  confessedly  derived  from 
various  authors,  dealing  not  only  with  the  East  in 

'  Ilistoria  Ilierosolymitana  Abbreviata.     Found  in  the  Gesta  Dei 
per  Francos.    Englisli  translation  :  P.  P.  T.,  vol.  xi  (abl)rpviated). 
'■'Caps.  Ixxii-lxxiv.  M'ap.  Ixii,  ■*  Cap.s.  Ixxxlii-xci. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  105 

general  but  with  other  little  known  parts  of  the 
world.  He  gives  the  reader  the  option  of  accepting 
or  refusing  the  travellers'  tales  regarding  Amazons, 
Pigmies,  Men  with  Horns,  Men  with  Tails,  etc.  This 
jumble  of  nonsense  serves  to  illustrate  the  crude 
state  of  science  in  the  thirteenth  century,  but  actual 
information  in  regard  to  the  Holy  Land  is  slight. 
He  notes  that  no  rain  falls  there  in  the  summer,  that 
thunder  and  lightning  occur  only  in  winter  time,  and 
that  wine  in  Jerusalem  is  cooled  during  the  hot  sea- 
son by  snow  brought  from  the  Lebanon.  Earth- 
quakes along  the  coast  are  attributed  largely  to  the 
action  of  waves  compressing  the  air  in  sea-caverns. 
A  notice  of  the  intermittent  fountain  of  Siloam 
leads  to  an  excursus  on  the  qualities  of  fountains  in 
general :  some  waters  strengthen  the  memory,  others 
destroy  it;  some  promote  libidinous  passions,  others 
remove  them;  women  drinking  at  one  fountain  are 
made  sterile,  at  another  are  rendered  fecundive.  In 
his  sections  on  Plants  and  Animals  he  often  fails  to 
discriminate  between  Palestine  and  other  Eastern 
lands,  noting,  however,  that  crocodiles  are  found  in 
the  stream  of  Caesarea  Palestina. 

Scattered  through  the  volume  without  much  re- 
gard to  order  are  many  geographical  notices — for 
example,  the  divisions  of  Syria,  which  we  would  nat- 
urally expect  to  find  at  the  beginning  of  the  treatise, 
are  enumerated  in  chapter  xcvi,  in  connection  with 
the  statement  that  Saladin  had  become  master  of  the 
whole  country.  His  nomenclature  follows,  with 
some  variations,  that  of  William  of  Tyre,  but  is  held 
with  the  same  loose  grasp.     More  satisfactory  are 


106  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

his  descriptions  of  the  four  great  principalities  or- 
ganized by  the  Crusaders — Edessa,  Antioch,  TripoH, 
and  Jerusalem  ^ — and  his  notices  of  over  thirty  coast 
towns  between  Egypt  and  Laodicea  (Latakia).^  We 
read  that  Baldwin,  fourth  king  of  Jerusalem,  rebuilt 
the  ruined  town  of  Gaza;  that  Ascalon  is  shaped 
Hke  a  bow,  or  half-circle,  the  string  lying  on  the 
seashore  and  the  round  part  on  the  land;  that 
Ashdod  had  dwindled  to  the  size  of  a  small  village, 
and  that  ' '  Tyre  is  well  watered  with  springs  and 
brooks  of  sweet  water  and  is  rich  and  fair  with 
vineyards,  gardens,  fruit-trees  and  cornfields. "  A 
correct  picture  is  drawn  of  Damascus.  But  the 
accounts  of  other  inland  places  are  brief,  and  ar- 
ranged with  little  order,  suggesting  a  compila- 
tion from  older  sources.  This  is  not  strange  when 
we  remember  that  Jacques  de  Vitry  wrote  after 
the  interior  of  the  country  had  reverted  to  the 
Saracens. 

Brief  notice  is  here  perhaps  due  to  the  anonymous 
tract,  "The  Citez  de  Jherusalem,"  written  in  old 
French,  probably  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  It  lacks  a  broad  preliminary  state- 
ment of  the  main  topographical  features,  but  gives 
the  names  of  a  number  of  streets  and  markets.  Thus 
to  the  student  of  Mediaeval  Jerusalem  its  value  is  con- 
siderable. In  some  manuscripts  the  ' '  Citez  ' '  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  description  of  the  Holy  Land,  which  repeats 
some  of  its  details.  From  this  second  part  Conder 
has  culled  a  list  of  some  thirty  distances  between 
various  places,  which  on  comparison  with  the  results 

'  Caps,  xxx-xxxiv.  ^  Caps,  xxxviii-xliv. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  107 

of  the  Survey,  he  finds  on  the  whole  to  approximate 
to  correctness.! 

The  German  Dominican  Monk,  commonly  called 
Burchard  of  Mt.  Zion,  whose  name  has  come  down 
to  us  under  the  various  forms  of  Burchardus,  Bro- 
cardus,  and  Borcardus,  appears  to  have  written  his 
account  about  the  year  1283.2  In  his  preface,  Bur- 
chard states  that,  having  traversed  a  large  part  of 
the  Holy  Land  on  foot,  his  description  is  the  result 
of  personal  observation,  supplemented  by  informa- 
tion derived  from  Syrians  (i.e.,  native  Christians) 
and  Saracens,  whom  he  carefully  questioned.  His 
title,  "  De  Monte  Sion,"  is  supposed  by  some  critics 
to  indicate  a  long  residence  at  the  convent  there, 
but  there  seems  to  be  no  evidence  of  this.  As  an 
attempt  at  systematic  arrangement,  Burchard 's  ac- 
count is  a  distinct  advance  upon  earlier  writers, 
though  the  system  is  open  to  criticism.  Taking  the 
city  of  Acre  as  a  centre,  he  divides  the  land  into 
four  quarters  by  means  of  radiating  lines,  each 
quarter  being  further  subdivided  into  three  parts. 
*'  In  each  of  these  divisions,"  he  says  in  his  preface, 
"I  have  placed  the  cities  and  places  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  that  it  may  be  easy  to  find  the  situation 
of  each  place."  As  these  radiating  bands  are  taken 
strictly  in  order,  the  reader  finds  himself  constantly 
brought  back  to  Acre.     Possibly,  Burchard's  early 

'  p.  p.  T.,  vol.  vi.  "We  may  note  here  that  chapters  vii-x  of 
Ernoul's  chronicle  (c.  1230)  are  devoted  to  the  Holy  Land  (see 
same  vol.)  His  account  is  full  of  errors,  and  his  arrangement  very 
arbitrary. 

*  P.  P.  T.,  vol.  xii.  Not  to  be  confused  with  Brooardus  wlio 
wrote  in  1332.     (See  Rohricht.) 


108  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

readers,  with  his  maps  before  them — the  first  medi- 
aeval map  of  which  we  have  a  record  ^ — may,  as  the 
author  hoped,  have  found  the  system  helpful,  but, 
as  this  map  has  not  come  down  to  our  times,  we  find 
nothing  but  confusion  in  a  purely  arbitrary  descrip- 
tion, which,  for  example,  instead  of  grouping  to- 
gether the  towns  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  presents 
Capernaum  and  Chorazin  in  one  section,  Tiberias  in 
another,  and  Bethsaida  with  Magdala  in  a  third.  Be- 
fore proceeding  to  describe  the  various  bands,  he 
quotes  with  some  amplification  Jacques  de  Vitry's 
divisions  of  Syria,  giving  credit  to  his  authority. 
As  to  Scriptural  place-names,  his  list  is  fuller  than 
that  of  Fetellus  by  some  forty-five  sites.  He  is  the 
first  medisBval  pilgrim  to  mention  Ai,  Aphek, 
Azekah,  Beth-haccerem,  Beth-rehob,  Gerar,  Kadesh- 
Naphtali,  Lachish,  Makkedah,  Michmash,  Mahanaim, 
Nob,  Ramoth-Gilead,  Shittim,  Shocoh,  Shunem,  etc. 
The  general  positions  of  these  are  indicated,  though 
they  are  not  identified  with  particular  sites  or  ruins. 
In  Burchard  we  are  pleased  to  observe,  at  last, 
the  dawning  of  an  interest  in  archaeology. ^  "At 
Kadesh-Naphtah,"  he  says,  "there  are  shown  to  this 
day  vast  ruins  and  exceeding  beauteous  tombs." 
' '  I  have  nowhere  in  the  Holy  Land  seen  such  great 
ruins  as  at  Samaria,  and  yet  I  have  seen  great  ones. 
The  palace  was  on  the  mountain-top  and 
was  exceeding  fair.  There  may  be  seen  there  to 
this  day  many  of  the  marble  columns  which  sup- 

'  See,  however,  p.  78. 

-'  Cap.  iv,  p.  27.  Note,  however,  that  in  tlie  first  quarter  of 
this  century,  Thietmar  doscrihes  a  rock-cut  city,  which  ho  did  not 
know  to  be  Petra. 


THE    CRUSADERS    AND    AFTER  109 

ported  its  palaces  and  colonnades.  Round  about 
the  mount,  below  the  palace  and  below  the  mansions 
of  the  nobles,  on  the  site  of  the  public  place  or  mar- 
ket for  buying  and  selling,  we  may  find  to  this  day, 
all  around  about  the  mount,  marble  columns,  stand- 
ing within  the  walls.  These  columns  used  to  sup- 
port the  vaults  of  the  street,  for  the  streets  of  this 
city  were  vaulted  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
Holy  Land. "  ^  In  Northern  Syria  he  notes  the 
Sepulchral  Towers  of  'Amrit.  His  topography  of 
Jerusalem  is  fuller  than  that  of  Theoderich,  notably 
in  showing  how  Mt.  Zion  (by  which  he  means  the 
southern  part  of  the  Western  Hill)  is  flanked  on  the 
south  and  west  by  one  deep  ravine — the  Valley  of 
Hinnom — and  on  the  north  and  east  by  a  second, 
which  begins  at  the  Tower  of  David,  passes  along 
the  north  of  Mt.  Zion,  and  bending  south  between 
Mt.  Zion  and  Mt.  Moriah,  joins  the  Kedron  Valley. 
"At  this  day,"  he  writes,  "the  whole  of  the  tor- 
rent-bed is  filled  up,  nevertheless  its  traces  may  be 
made  out  after  a  fashion.  "2  ^g  the  tourist  proceeds 
to-day  along  the  street  leading  from  the  Jaffa  Gate 
to  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  he  finds  it  difficult  to  real- 
ize that  he  is  walking  over  the  course  of  an  ancient 
torrent-bed.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  over  six 
hundred  years  ago  our  Dominican  Monk  also  found 
this  valley  filled  up,  and  yet  used  his  sharp  eyes  to 
make  out  its  traces.  His  archaeological  instinct  is 
again  shown  in  describing  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 

'  Cap.  vii,  p.  51. 

'  C'aj).   viii,   p.   07.      So   the  text  of   Ijaiirent's   oflition.      Other 
texts  have  :  •'  relictis  tanieu  Vfstigiis  priuris  couoavitas. " 


110  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

where  he  illustrates  the  changes  of  level  by  noting 
that  the  Virgin's  Tomb,  once  above  the  surface,  was 
at  the  time  of  his  visit  quite  underground.  ^ 

At  the  end  of  Burchard's  tract  are  two  sections, 
entitled,  respectively,  "The  Fruits  and  Beasts  of  the 
Holy  Land  ' '  and  ' '  The  Various  Religions  of  the 
Holy  'Land."  The  latter  shows  a  broad  spirit  of 
toleration,  declaring  on  the  one  hand  that  the  Latin 
population,  containing  so  much  of  the  scum  of  Eu- 
rope, is  the  worst  in  the  country,  and  deploring  on 
the  other  the  terror  inspired  in  true  Catholics  by  the 
very  mention  of  the  Eastern  Sects,  which  he  says 
include  "men  of  simple  and  devout  life,  yet  I  do 
not  deny  there  may  be  fools  among  them,  seeing 
that  even  the  Church  of  Rome  itself  is  not  free 
from  fools. ' '  2  His  brief  notice  of  the  Moslems 
is  both  accurate  and  temperate,  though  it  must  be 
admitted  that  in  a  former  section  he  has  referred  to 
the  "Abominable  Mohammed."  Taking  into  ac- 
count Burchard's  grasp  of  his  subject,  his  fulness 
of  detail,  his  interest  in  archaeology,  and  his  tolerant 
spirit,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  follow  M.  Laurent,  one  of 
his  many  editors,  in  accounting  him  "the  most  not- 
able of  all  mediaeval  pilgrims." 

Before  leaving  the  Crusading  Period,  that  is,  the 
period  during  which  the  Franks  had  at  least  a  foot- 
hold in  the  Holy  Land,  we  must  refer  to  the  wealth 
of  information  in  connection  with  the  official  descrip- 
tions of  Fiefs  and  lists  of  places  belonging  to  differ- 
ent Orders  and   individuals.  ^     Conder   has   shown 

^  Cap.  viii,  p.  72.  -'  Ca]).  xiii,  p.  107. 

'  See  Key's  Colonies  Franques  en  Syrie. 


THE    CRUSADERS    AND    AFTER  111 

that  "out  of  some  700  places  mentioned  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  in  Western  Pales- 
tine, about  500  are  now  more  or  less  certainly  lo- 
cated. ' '  1  The  Crusaders  were  not,  strictly  speaking, 
explorers,  but  they  created  abundant  material  for 
the  explorers  of  succeeding  centuries.  We  must 
add  that  in  doing  this  they  uprooted  much  of  the 
antiquity  of  the  past,  without,  alas !  properly  record- 
ing its  traces.  Among  the  best  preserved  monu- 
ments of  the  land  are  the  ruins  of  the  Crusading 
churches  and  castles.  The  latter  invite  the  travel- 
ler's attention  wherever  he  may  wander — on  the 
shores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  heights  overlooking 
the  Lake  of  Gennesaret,  on  the  foot-hills  of  Lebanon 
and  Hermon,  along  the  maritime  plain,  in  the  in- 
terior of  Northern  Syria.  ^ 

During  the  fourteenth  century  visits  to  Palestine 
pass  into  a  new  phase.  No  longer  was  their  motive 
exclusively  religious.  In  many  cases  they  are  but 
incidents  in  more  extensive  travels,  taken  in  the 
spirit  of  Marco  Polo,  whose  exploring  enterprise 
belongs  indeed  to  the  preceding  century.  For  the 
Venetian  Marino  Sanuto,  however,  the  centre  of  the 
universe  was  still  the  Holy  Land.  On  September 
24,  1321,  he  presented  to  Pope  John  XXL  his  vast 
work  entitled  "Liber  Secretorum  Fidelium  Crucis 
super  Terrse  Sanctse  Recuperatione  et  Conserva- 
tione " ;  or  "  The  Book  of  Secrets  for  Crusaders 
concerning  the  Recovery  and  Preservation  of  the 

'  Q.  S.,  1897,  p.  71.  Also  Conder's  The  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

'  See  Key's  I^^tude  sur  les  monuments  de  1' architecture  militaire 
dos  Croisos  en  Syrie,  etc.,  Paris,  1871. 


112  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

Holy  Land. ' '  ^  This  work  Ritter  declares  to  be 
"the  most  complete  monograph  which  the  Middle 
Ages  have  given  us  on  any  similar  theme. "  To  a 
study  of  this  burning  question,  both  on  its  historic 
and  practical  sides,  our  Venetian  gave  a  great  part 
of  his  life.  He  traces  the  history  of  the  land  from 
the  earliest  times  through  the  period  of  Mohamme- 
dan rule  to  the  entry  of  the  Franks.  He  discusses 
the  origin  of  the  Crusaders,  the  period  of  Latin 
power,  the  reasons  for  the  loss  of  the  kingdom. 
He  points  out  the  easiest  places  for  the  landing  of 
an  army,  shows  where  the  best  sailors  may  be  ob- 
tained, and  dwells  on  the  Art  of  Making  Allies. 

The  geography  of  Palestine  is  systematically 
treated  in  Part  XIV  of  Book  111,2  y^{i\i  cross  refer- 
ences to  other  portions  of  the  work,  where  cities  and 
other  places  are  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
History.  Though  the  author  was  a  frequent  visitor 
to  Acre,  we  miss  the  personal  touch  in  his  informa- 
tion, much  of  which,  adopted  without  acknowledg- 
ment, may  be  traced  to  Burchard  and  to  Jacques  de 
Vitry.  Still,  while  closely  following  the  former — 
mistakes  and  all — in  locating  sites,  he  attempts  on 
his  own  account  about  a  dozen  identifications  of 
places  not  noticed  before  in  Mediaeval  times.  ^  He 
also  shows  a  certain  originality  in  grouping  his  sup- 
posed facts,  devoting  especial  chapters  to  the  Rivers 
and  the  Mountains,  references  to  which,  often  er- 

'  Latin  text  found  in  tlic  Gcsta  Dei  Francos. 

^  This  portion  appears  in  English  translation  in  P.  P.  T. ,  vol.  xii. 

^  Tliese  include  Abilene,  Beeroth,  Beth  Jesimoth,  Eshtaol,  Eue- 
glaim,  Jahesli  Oilead,  .Tokneam,  the  field  of  Zoan.  None  of  the 
sites  is  located  precisely. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND   AFTER  113 

roneous,  are  scattered  through  Burchard's  work. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  section  we  find  detailed  lists 
of  the  pilgrimages  to  be  taken  in  the  Holy  Land. 

Fortunately,  of  the  four  maps  prepared  for  the 
work,  three  have  been  preserved:  The  World,  the 
Holy  Land,  The  Coast  of  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and 
Egypt.  Only  the  map  of  the  Mediterranean  has 
perished.  We  also  have  his  plans  of  Acre  and  of 
Jerusalem.  The  map  of  the  Holy  Land  is  hardly 
more  than  a  rude  sketch,  not  drawn  to  scale  and  full 
of  errors.  Damascus  appears  near  Csesarea  Philippi 
and  west  of  Hermon;  the  Dead  Sea  shrinks  to 
narrow  limits,  while  in  comparison  the  waters  of 
Merom  are  too  extensive.  The  map  is  covered  by  a 
network  of  lines  which  have  no  connection  with  de- 
grees or  meridians,  but  which,  like  the  bands  of 
Burchard,  were  supposed  to  facilitate  reference. 
Our  author  states  that  as  the  Holy  Land  is  eighty- 
three  leagues  long  and  twenty-eight  leagues  broad, 
he  has  divided  his  map  into  squares  by  eighty-three 
lines  running  east  and  west  and  by  twenty-eight 
running  north  and  south,  each  space  representing  a 
square  league.  In  enumerating  the  principal  places 
he  proceeds  longitudinally  by  spaces,  beginning  at 
the  northeast  corner  and  thus  running  down  the 
map  twenty-eight  times.  This  method  of  description 
rivals  that  of  Burchard  in  awkwardness,  and  in- 
volves, like  his,  the  scattering  through  the  text  of 
the  various  references  to  the  sites  on  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  instead  of  their  co-ordination  in  a  single 
paragraph.  His  map  of  Jerusalem  is  confirmatory 
of  Burchard's  statement,  made  at  the  close  of  the 


lit  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

thirteenth  century,  that  Mt.  Zion  was  within  the 
city  wall.  In  1896,  while  trenching  across  the 
Western  Hill,  Mr.  Dickie  and  myself  came  across  a 
city  wall  which  ran  on  a  different  line  from  that 
of  Eudocia.  On  boring  through  its  foundations, 
we  found  in  their  very  heart  a  fragment  of  late- 
Byzantine  moulding,  indicating  that  these  were  laid  in 
Mediaeval  times,  i  Turning  to  Marino  Sanuto's  map 
we  observed  upon  it  a  wall  running  upon  the  same 
general  lines  with  the  foundations  we  were  tracing.  2 
While  Marino  Sanuto  was  bending  all  his  energies 
to  considering  practical  plans  for  bringing  Palestine 
once  more  under  Christian  dominion,  a  poor  exiled 
Jew  was  unostentatiously  working  for  the  advance- 
ment of  real  scientific  knowledge  regarding  the 
land  of  his  ancestors.  In  1314  the  Rabbi  Esthori 
B.  Mose  Ha-Parchi  settled  in  Beisan  (Bethshean, 
Scythopolis) ,  above  the  western  bank  of  the  Jordan, 
and  from  this  centre  systematically  explored  both 
Eastern  and  Western  Palestine  for  seven  years, 
devoting  two  of  them  to  Galilee.  His  work  was 
completed  in  1322.  Crude  as  it  may  now  seem,  it 
was  a  great  advance  upon  contemporary  Christian 
writers.  It  sounds  the  note  of  Robinson,  empha- 
sizing the  fact  that  many  ancient  towns  of  the 
tribes  were  well  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
land,  though  visitors  were  ignorant  of  their  situa- 

'  See  Excavations  at  Jerusalem  by  Bliss  and  Dickie,  pp.  68-74. 

^  This  wall  appears  also  on  the  map  accompanying  the  De 
Passagiis  in  Terram  Sanctam  found  in  the  Clironologia  Magna, 
dated  by  Kiihricht  at  about  \?>?>0.  Rut  Thomas,  editor  of  the  De 
Passagiis  (Vciiict',  1870),  thinks  it  probal)le  that  Marino  Sanuto 
made  use  of  this  work.    Neither  map  is  a  direct  copy  of  the  other. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  115 

tion.i  He  compares  his  own  observations  with  the 
statements  of  former  Jewish  writers.  The  account 
of  districts  which  he  visited  is  accompanied  by 
important  notes  on  frontiers,  cantons,  distances, 
botany,  etc.  Robinson  points  out  that  several 
ancient  sites  often  supposed  to  have  been  rightly 
identified  for  the  first  time  during  the  nineteenth 
century  were  recognized  by  him;  for  example,  he 
identifies  Megiddo  with  Lejjtin  or  Legio  on  the  edge 
of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  On  the  other  hand,  of 
course  many  mistakes  occur.  Mareshah  is  not  north 
of  Lydda,  but  far  to  the  south.  "Dan,"  he  says, 
"is  Leshem,  Sefam,  Laish,  Paneas,  Arabic  Banias" ; 
his  attempt  to  correlate  these  various  names  is  in- 
teresting, his  identification  is  wrong.  Of  especial 
note  is  his  account  of  the  Trans-Jordanic  provinces, 
with  mention  of  Dibon,  Aroer,  Heshbon,  etc.^ 

'  This  point  is  touched  on  by  Theoderich  (1172),  see  p.  95. 

^  For  Parchi,  see  Zunz  On  the  Geograpliy  of  Palestine  from 
Jewish  Sources,  in  Asher's  Benjamin  of  Tudela  (1840-41),  vol. 
ii,  pp.  393  flf.  Parchi  and  Benjamin  are  tlie  most  important  of 
Mediaeval  Jewish  writers  on  Palestine.  R.  Petachia  (1175-80)  has 
been  already  mentioned  in  a  footnote  (p.  101).  For  brief  notices 
of  other  authors,  see  Zunz  in  the  same  vol.,  pp.  234  ff.,  On  the 
Geographical  Literature  of  the  Jews  from  the  remotest  times  to  the 
year  1841.  See  also  Carmoly's  Itineraires  de  la  Terro  Sainte 
des  XIII,  XIV,  XV,  XVI  et  XVII  Siecles  (Bruxelles,  1847).  This 
contains  French  translations  of  the  brief  tracts  of  Samuel  Bar 
Simson(1220);  lakob  de  Paris  (12ol);  Ishak  Chelo  (1334) ;  Eliahde 
Ferrare  (1438);  Gerson  de  Scarmala  (lofil);  Uri  de  Bicl  (1564); 
Samuel  Jemsel  (1041).  Tiicse  authors  concern  themselves  mainly 
with  the  tombs  of  sacred  men  of  Scripture  and  noted  llal)bis.  Com- 
pare also  Neul)auer'8  Anecdota  Oxoniensia.  Modiicval  Jewish 
Chronicles  (1895);  especially  for  Daniel  the  Keubenite,  who  visited 
Jerusalem  and  Hebron  in  1523.  He  gives  a  curious  account  of  the 
Tombs  of  the  Patriarchs  at  the  latter  place.  See  also  Chaplin,  Q.  S. , 
1897,  p.  44. 


116  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

In  1336  Wilhelm  von  Baldensel  and  Ludolph  von 
Suchem,  rector  of  a  parish  in  the  diocese  of  Pader- 
born,  began  their  travels  together  in  Palestine.  ^ 
Wilhelm  published  first,  and  from  his  account  Lu- 
dolph copies  many  entire  sentences  in  his  work  writ- 
ten about  the  year  1350.  But  though  they  run  on 
parallel  lines,  Wilhelm  is  bald,  uninteresting;  Lu- 
dolph is  charming,  picturesque.  The  latter  is  indeed 
no  geographer;  he  draws  no  broad  outhnes,  and  his 
details  are  often  erroneous,  such  as  when  he  confuses 
Azotus  with  Antipatris,  and  places  Gath  at  Scanda- 
lium,  north  of  Acre.^  But  inaccuracy  hi  identifica- 
tion of  long-dead  cities  may  be  pardoned  to  a  trav- 
eller who  can  paint  us  a  vivid  picture  of  the  living 
city  of  Damascus  as  it  stood  in  Mediaeval  times. 
Lightly  he  touches  upon  its  circle  of  gardens  and 
orchards,  full  of  flowers  and  fruits;  its  rivers  and 
brooks  and  fountains  ' '  curiously  arranged  to  minis- 
ter to  men's  luxury";  the  segregation  of  divers 
trades  by  streets;  the  rivalry  of  merchants  in  dis- 
play of  goods  in  front  of  their  shops;  the  singing- 
birds  hung  in  cages  before  the  dwelHng-houses ;  the 
tempting  cook-shops  redolent  with  exquisitely  pre- 
pared food.  3  As  you  read  you  seem  to  hear  the  hum 
of  chatter  and  the  click  of  busy  trade ;  you  smell  the 
flowers,  you  admire  the  prettily  arranged  wares,  you 
taste  the  confections  of  the  pastry-cook.     He  gives 

'  Guilielmi  do  Baldensel  Hodoeporicon  ad  Terram  Sanctani.  See 
Canisii  Thesanr.  Monument,  ed.  Basnage.  Ant.  172"),  Tome  IV,  p. 
331.  Description  of  the  Holy  Land,  etc.,  by  Ludolpli  von  Sucluni, 
P.  P.  T. ,  xii.  (This  last  name  sometimes  appears  as  Petrus  de 
Suchen  and  Ludolphus  dc  Sudiieim ;  sec  Uuhricht.) 

-  Cap.  xxvii.  ^  Cap.  xliv. 


THE    CRUSADERS   AND    AFTER  117 

an  enthusiastic  account  of  ' '  the  glorious  city  of  Acre ' ' 
as  it  had  been  in  Crusading  times.  ^  Equally  lively  is 
the  story  of  the  journey  from  Egypt  to  Palestine  by 
the  way  of  Mt.  Sinai,  with  its  notes  on  the  habits  of 
camels,  on  the  Arab  guides,  on  the  hardships  of  the 
Desert,  on  the  Monks  of  St.  Catherine.  2  At  Hebron 
he  found  three  renegades — two  esquires  and  their 
servant — who  had  renounced  their  Christian  Faith 
in  the  hope  of  gain,  and  who,  as  he  pathetically  re- 
marks, "had  no  heart  to  tell  who  they  had  been."  ^ 
As  has  been  noticed  in  the  case  of  former  travellers, 
the  burden  of  describing  the  traditional  Holy  Places 
in  Jerusalem  weighs  on  Ludolph's  style.  We  miss 
the  gay  note,  the  bright  personal  touch.  The  places 
passed  on  the  way  between  Jerusalem  and  Damascus 
are  only  briefly  referred  to,  and  the  trip  across  the 
Lebanon  to  Beyrout  is  barely  more  than  indicated. 

The  earliest  known  manuscript  purporting  to  con- 
tain the  travels  of  a  Sir  John  Mandeville,  is  in  French 
and  is  dated  1371.  The  author  claiming  this  name 
declares  that  he  left  England  in  1322,  and  that  after 
wandering  through  Tartary,  Persia,  Chaldea,  Ar- 
menia, Palestine,  Egypt,  Lybia,  Ethiopia,  India  and  the 
Isles  round  about,  he  wrote  out  his  adventures  in  the 
year  1357.  The  work  was  early  translated  into  Latin 
and  English.  Its  subsequent  popularity  is  proved 
by  translations  into  seven  other  languages.  This 
vogue  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  curious  mixture 
of  credulity  with  shrewd  observation,  the  whole  per- 
vaded by  a  genial  and  liberal  spirit.  Side  by  side 
with  descriptions  of  natural  products,  we  find  the 

'  Cap.  ixv.  ^  Caps.  xixv-ixivL  ^  Cap.  xxivii. 


118  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

old  tales  of  dog-headed  men  and  one-eyed  monsters, 
which  appear  in  Pliny  and  Solinus.  In  view  of  the 
uncertainty  as  to  who  the  author  of  this  curious  work 
was,  and  as  to  where  he  actually  travelled  himself 
(though  there  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  he  really 
was  in  Egypt  and  Palestine) ;  as  well  as  in  view  of 
the  certainty  that  he  stole  much  of  his  material  from 
his  predecessors,  notably  from  William  of  Baldinsel, 
it  would  not  be  edifying  to  our  subject  to  analyze 
his  work  closely.  But  whoever  "Sir  John"  may 
have  been,  it  is  important  for  us  to  realize  that  the 
fourteenth  century  produced  a  Palestine  Pilgrim, 
who,  full  of  superstition  indeed,  was  at  the  same 
time  a  man  of  the  world ;  whose  spirit  of  toleration 
in  religion  was  in  advance  of  all  who  had  gone  before 
him,  even  in  advance  of  Burchard  of  Mt.  Zion.  As 
such  a  one,  he  may  claim  our  passing  interest. 
Even  when  his  facts  are  dubious,  his  point  of  view  is 
illuminating.  His  account  of  the  tenets  of  Moham- 
medanism, indeed,  contains  only  a  small  proportion 
of  error.  But  whether  he  ever  conversed  with  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt  or  not,  his  story  of  the  alleged  in- 
terview serves  to  emphasize  the  author's  liberal 
ideas.  He  puts  into  the  mouth  of  the  Sultan  a  con- 
demnation of  Christendom  as  over  against  Christian- 
ity which  had  been  betrayed  by  its  followers.  The 
Holy  Land  will  surely  revert  to  the  Christians,  says 
the  Sultan,  when  they  shall  serve  God  more  devoutly, 
but,  until  they  change,  the  Saracens  have  dread  of 
them  in  no  kind.  The  chief  obstacle  to  the  other- 
wise easy  conversion  of  the  Moslems,  "Sir  John" 
finds  in  the  bad  example  of  Christians  with  whose 


THE    0RU8ADBRS   AND   AFTER  110 

evil  living  he  contrasts  the  faithful  and  consistent 
life  of  the  votaries  of  Al-Koran.     (Chap,  xii.)  i 

For  a  century  and  a  quarter  after  the  time  of  the 
alleged  Mandeville,  though  the  stream  of  pilgrimage 
was  never  interrupted,  there  are  no  intrinsically 
important  records  of  travel.  Some  of  them  strictly 
follow  the  traditional  lines  of  description.  For  ex- 
ample, John  Poloner  (1421-22)  sometimes  copies 
Burchard  word  for  word,  and  again  appears  to  fol- 
low the  "Old  Compendium,"  supposed  by  Tobler  to 
have  been  used  by  Fetellus,  Theoderich  and  others. 
Even  his  map  (unfortunately  lost)  adopted  the  ar- 
bitrary divisions  into  squares  employed  a  hundred 
years  before  by  Marino  Sanuto.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  narrative  of  the  Frenchman  Bertran- 
don  de  la  Brocquiere,  who  visited  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine in  1432,  we  hear  a  new  note  heralding  as  it  were 
some  of  the  features  of  the  modern  period  of  travel.  ^ 
Like  a  multitude  of  his  successors,  he  presupposes  the 
reader's  interest  in  his  private  adventures,  with  which 
the  work  is  largely  concerned.  We  hear  more  of  the 
difficulties  in  visiting  places  than  of  the  places  them- 
selves. For  compensation  we  get  a  good  deal  of  inci- 
dental information  in  regard  to  the  social  conditions  of 
the  country  near  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury.   What  interests  him  he  describes  in  a  way  to  in- 

'  For  the  most  accessible  discussion  of  the  authorship  of  this 
work,  see  art.  Sir  John  Mandeville,  Dictionary  of  National  Biogra- 
phy. For  Old  English  version  the  reader  is  referred  to  Ilalliwell's 
edition,  1866  :  The  Voyage  and  Travaile  of  Sir  Jolin  Maundeville. 

'Modern  French  in  M6moires  de  I'lnstitut,  Tome  V,  Paris,  1804. 
See  also  Early  Travels  iu  Palestine  (Wright)  for  English  trans- 
lation. 


120  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

terest  us :  the  difficult  landing  at  Jaffa  with  the  crowd 
of  hungry  officials  and  dragomans  on  the  shore;  the 
illness  which  interrupts  the  author's  visit  to  Mt. 
Sinai,  but  which  gives  him  the  chance  to  experience 
the  kindly  hospitality  of  an  Arab  camp,  accurately 
described;  the  violent  contrast  between  the  heat  of 
the  day  and  the  cold  at  night  on  the  journey  across 
the  Lebanon  to  Damascus;  the  trouble  he  had  at 
the  gate  of  that  city  which  no  Christian  was  per- 
mitted to  enter  on  horseback ;  his  detention  in  prison 
until  released  by  the  intervention  of  the  Venetian 
Consul;  the  return  of  the  Mohammedan  pilgrimage 
from  Mecca;  the  purchase  of  an  Arab  attire  which 
he  had  to  assume  for  his  journey  by  caravan  to 
Brusa;  his  wonder  at  the  immense  water-wheels 
which  to-day  strike  the  traveller's  attention  at 
Hamath.  Twice  he  was  deterred  from  making  the 
trip  to  Nazareth  and  vicinity  by  advice  given  at 
Jerusalem  and  at  Acre  respectively,  but  his  de- 
termination surmounted  all  obstacles  and  he  finally 
visited  the  desired  places,  starting  from  Beyrout 
alone  with  a  single  muleteer. 


LECTURE   IV 

FROM   FABRI   TO   ROBINSON 

If  in  Bertrandon  de  la  Brocquiere,  with  a  notice 
of  whose  travels  we  closed  the  last  lecture,  we  found 
signs  of  a  transition  from  mediaeval  to  modern 
methods  in  descriptive  travel,  we  may  affirm  that 
with  Felix  Fabri  (1480-83)  the  transition  has 
finally  been  made.  ^  Standing  at  the  threshold  of  a 
new  period,  this  Dominican  Father  of  Ulm  looks 
both  backward  and  forward,  but  his  likeness  to 
Robinson  is  greater  than  his  likeness  to  Burchard. 
Still,  we  must  remember  that  he  is  only  on  the 
threshold.  The  analogy  with  modern  times  pre- 
sented by  his  work  is  more  in  form  than  in  content. 
His  geography  shows  little  or  no  advance  on  his 
predecessors.  Archaeology,  as  such,  has  small  in- 
terest for  him.  He  uses  little  fresh  material.  But 
he  arranges  the  old  material  with  discrimination ;  he 
attempts  to  discuss  it  critically;  and  he  presents  it 
to  us  with  a  fulness  never  before  contemplated. 

Fabri's  second  trip  to  the  Holy  Land  was  con- 
temporaneous with  that  of  Bernhardt  de  Breyden- 
bach,  Dean  of  Mayence,  and  the  journey  to  Sinai 

'  Felix  Fabri :  Eigontliehe  Beschreibung  der  bin  und  wider- 
Fahrt  zu  dera  heyligen  Landt  gen  .leruHalem,  Ulni,  loaG.  For  the 
references  here,  see  Tlie  Wanderings  of  Felix  Fabri,  P.  1'.  T., 
tU-x.     (Two  volumes  ))oun(l  in  four.) 


122  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

they  took  in  company.  Good  friends  they  were, 
and,  indeed,  the  Dean  invited  Fabri  to  visit  him  at 
the  Cathedral  town,  where  they  might  compose  their 
works  together.  FeHx  praises  his  friend's  book 
highly,  declaring  that  his  perspicuous  account  of  the 
religious  sects  is  fuller  than  his  own,i  and  that  his 
pen-picture  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  is 
so  vivid  that  the  reader  feels  himself  to  be  standing 
in  the  very  court-yard  and  gazing  at  the  building 
itself.  2  Comparing  the  two  works,  we  note  that 
Breydenbach's  is  the  better  adapted  for  reference, 
as  the  itineraries  are  kept,  separate  from  the  histori- 
cal discussions  and  from  the  detailed  descriptions.  ^ 
His  style  is  more  condensed  than  that  of  Fabri's, 
but  at  the  sacrifice  of  those  personal  and  humorous 
touches  which  illuminate  the  otherwise  prolix  ac- 
count of  the  latter.  Notwithstanding  his  more 
scientific  arrangement,  the  critical  Robinson  finds 
Breydenbach  less  accurate  than  Fabri.  Hence,  all 
things  considered,  we  shall  keep  to  Fabri  as  the  bet- 
ter representative  of  the  new  era  in  travel. 

This  choice  will  enable  us  to  illustrate  the  bond  of 
common  experience  that  unites  all  travellers  to  the 
Holy  Land,  whether  mediaeval  or  modern.  We  may 
quote,  then,  a  few  of  Fabri's  humorous  passages, 
showing  that  tourists  visiting  this  country  ten  years 
before  Columbus  discovered  America,  had  just  about 
the  same  adventures,   and  showed  just  about  the 

'Vol.  i,  pp.  438-39.  'Vol.  i,  p.  427. 

^  Ik'rn.  de  IJrcyrlenbach,  Itinerarium  Ilierosolymitaniini  ac  in 
TtTnim  Sauctuiii,  Mogunt,  HHC  ;  Spira;,  1490,  ib.,  1502.  (Jermau  : 
JJie  Heiligen  Keiseu  geu  Jherusalerii,  clc  ,  M;u  nz,  148G,  etc. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  123 

same  sort  of  human  nature  as  may  be  exhibited  in 
the  latest  grand  cruise  of  1904.  When  I  read  how 
the  German  Pilgrims,  on  the  morning  of  their  start 
from  Jaffa,  were  met  by  a  horde  of  donkey-drivers 
with  such  an  onrush  that  "it  not  seldom  hap- 
pened that  two  or  three  drivers  were  dragging  one 
pilgrim,  one  in  one  direction,  one  in  another,"  ^  my 
mind  instantly  parallels  the  scene  with  the  recollec- 
tion of  an  Austrian  pilgrim  I  once  saw  in  the  Jeru- 
salem bazar,  whose  terrified  expression  told  that  he 
feared  he  would  be  torn  limb  from  limb  by  the  des- 
perate onslaught  of  the  sellers  of  olive-wood  and 
pearl  ware.  Felix  and  his  party  were  conducted  to 
the  Siloam  Tunnel,  but  what  satisfaction  they  got 
out  of  it  may  be  gathered  from  Felix's  own  words: 
' '  Those  in  front  cried  out  against  the  impatience  of 
those  behind,  and  those  who  were  last  cried  out  at 
the  slowness  of  those  who  were  in  front,  and  those 
who  were  in  the  middle  cried  out  because  they  were 
squeezed  by  both  the  others.  "^  Cameleers,  it  appears, 
have  not  altered  a  whit  during  the  last  400  years. 
Inspired  by  hopes  of  extra  bakhshish,  they  delayed 
the  start  of  our  pilgrim's  caravan  by  leaving  on  the 
ground,  after  the  camels  were  charged,  a  bed,  a 
basket  or  a  bag,  declaring  that  nothing  else  could 
go  on  the  loads.  Says  Fabri:  "  We  cursed  them  in 
German  and  they  cursed  us  in  Arabic,  and  we  shouted 
at  one  another  without  either  side  understanding  the 
other. "  ^  On  the  way  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho 
Felix's  cavalcade  was  followed  by  a  rabble  of  Arab 
boys,  with  an  eye  to  fun  and  plunder.     He  main- 

'  Felix  Fabri :  I,  p.  240.  '  I,  p.  527.  *  II,  p.  492. 


124  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

tains  that  the  plight  of  his  party  was  worse  than 
that  of  the  man  who  fell  among  thieves  along  this 
same  route,  ' '  for, ' '  he  says,  ' '  we  brought  our  thieves 
with  us  at  our  own  charges,  "^  His  fondness  for 
finding  a  parallel  between  his  own  experiences  and 
those  of  Biblical  characters  is  further  illustrated  by 
his  account  of  the  terrible  thirst  experienced  by 
the  Pilgrims  in  the  Wilderness  of  Sinai  when  ' '  we 
murmured  for  water,  saying  to  the  dragoman  Cal- 
inus,  who  was  our  Moses,  '  Give  us  water  that  we 
may  drink.'  "^  Fabri's  description  of  this  Calinus, 
by  the  way,  proves  that  the  dragoman-fever,  the 
chief  symptom  of  which  is  the  hallucination  that 
your  own  particular  dragoman  is  a  unique  incarna- 
tion of  disinterested  perfection  and  that  with  him  all 
virtue  will  perish,  is  a  disease  not  confined  to  modern 
times.  Like  his  successor  of  to-day,  Calinus  would 
not  willingly  discourage  this  idea.  ' '  He  was  much 
troubled,"  says  Felix,  "to  know  how  after  his 
death  pilgrims  would  be  able  to  be  guided  through 
the  desert  and  through  those  countries.  Indeed  I 
myself  am  also  disquieted  about  this,  and  I  dread 
his  death.  "3 

On  returning  to  Germany  from  his  first  visit  to 
Palestine,  made  in  1480,  when  he  "ran  about  the 
Holy  Places  without  understanding  or  feeling  what 
they  were,"^  Felix  painfully  realized  that  he  had  no 
clear  answer  to  give  to  questions  about  the  Holy 
Land.  Determining  to  make  a  second  journey  under 
different  auspices,  he  devoted  a  year  to  an  elaborate 

»II,  p.  10.  -II,  p.  632.  -'11,  p.  lOG. 

*  See  Introduction  to  his  Wanderings. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  125 

study  of  the  literature  of  the  subject,  which  further 
revealed  to  him  the  superficial  and  irregular  char- 
acter of  his  own  observations.  His  new  record  took 
the  form  of  a  diary,  minutely  detailing  each  day's 
happenings ;  a  resume  of  the  condition  and  history  of 
a  given  place  was  inserted  on  the  day  on  which  it 
was  visited.  The  main  object  of  the  work  being  the 
elucidation  of  the  Bible,  he  recognized  in  the  life  of 
the  Holy  Land,  as  he  found  it,  a  wealth  of  illustra- 
tion of  ancient  manners  and  customs.  His  account 
of  the  different  religious  sects  is  fair  on  the  whole 
as  regards  the  facts,  but  it  is  occasionally  embittered 
by  an  intolerant  spirit.  As  we  have  already  inti- 
mated, his  geography,  whether  in  general  descrip- 
tion or  in  Scriptural  identification,  shows  no  advance 
upon  Burchard's. 

Let  us  follow  this  second  journey  somewhat  more 
closely.  In  1483  Felix  Fabri  was  attached  as  guide 
and  domestic  chaplain  to  a  party  of  four  nobles,  who 
travelled  in  considerable  state.  At  Venice  they 
made  a  contract  with  the  captain  of  a  galley,  who, 
for  forty  ducats  apiece,  agreed  to  pay  all  the  ex- 
penses of  the  ordinary  tour,  on  sea  and  land.  The 
trip  to  the  Jordan  was  included,  but  not  the  excur- 
sion to  Mt.  Sinai.  Mt.  Carmel  was  sighted  on  the 
1st  of  July  amid  a  joyful  outburst  of  music  from 
trumpets,  flutes,  and  bagpipes,  but  the  party  was 
detained  in  the  Jaffa  harbor  for  five  days,  awaiting 
the  return  of  messengers  from  Jerusalem  with  pa- 
pers of  safe-conduct.  A  further  detention  of  four 
days  was  suffered  in  a  foul  chamber  on  shore,  so 
that  the  start  for  Ramleh  was   not  made   till  the 


126  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

9th  of  the  month.  At  this  place  the  Father 
Guardian  of  the  Jerusalem  convent  of  Mt.  Zion 
read  them  a  list  of  twenty-seven  rules  to  govern 
their  conduct  in  visiting  the  Holy  Places,  and  their 
relations  to  the  Saracens.  ^  Most  of  these  I  heartily 
recommend  to  the  consideration  of  modern  travellers. 
Our  pilgrims  were  told  to  beware  of  their  conduct 
with  Moslems,  lest  they  bring  shame  on  the  Chris- 
tian name;  to  refrain  from  entering  mosques,  from 
laughing  at  the  prayers  of  the  Saracens,  or  from 
drinking  wine  in  their  presence;  not  to  write  their 
names  on  walls  nor  to  chip  off  bits  from  the  Holy 
Places.  Unfortunately,  these  last  two  injunctions 
were  badly  observed,  for  we  hear  of  one  pilgrim  who 
smeared  his  name  with  red  paint  so  ubiquitously  that 
Felix  declares  ' '  his  companions  wished  that  they 
never  had  known  the  name  which  he  had  been  of 
such  pains  to  paint  up  everywhere, "  ^  and  of  an- 
other whose  mutilation  of  the  Tomb  of  St.  Catherine 
at  Sinai  threatened  to  cause  a  serious  quarrel  at  the 
Convent,  happily  averted  by  the  admirable  Calinus, 
who  managed  secretly  to  regain  the  missing  chip  and 
to  restore  it  to  the  indignant  monks.  ^ 

From  Ramleh  the  pilgrims  proceeded  to  Jerusalem 
under  a  strong  escort,  passing  the  night  on  the 
ground,  too  excited  for  sleep.  Like  modern  pil- 
grims, they  went  straightway  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
where  many  manifested  their  emotion  in  violent,  hys- 
terical forms.  Felix  bears  interesting  testimony  to 
the  attitude  of  the  Moslems  to  this  tomb.  They 
regard  it,  he  says,  as  the  grave  where  was  interred 

»  I,  pp.  248  ff.  ''  II,  p.  88.  -^  II,  p.  625. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBTNSON  127 

the  man  crucified  in  the  place  of  Jesus.  To  them 
as  to  their  successors  to-day  the  Cross  of  Christ  was 
both  a  stumbling-block  and  foolishness.  Felix  was 
taken  to  a  heap  of  stones  near  the  Church  of  Mt. 
Zion — a  quarter  of  a  mile  south  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre— and  was  told  that  the  place  was  venerated  by 
the  Saracens  as  the  true  burial-place  of  Jesus. 
Later  he  visited  the  spot  secretly,  scattered  the 
stones,  and  unearthed  the  loaves  of  bread  buried  as 
offerings  by  the  Arab  women.  ^ 

The  chief  interest  in  his  notes  on  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre lies  in  his  attempt — perhaps  the  first  in  the 
Middle  Ages — to  employ  genuin-e  historical  criticism 
in  discussing  the  site.^  We  hasten  to  add  that  it 
is  not  the  site  itself  which  he  calls  in  question ;  for 
him  the  problem  is  to  ascertain  whether  the  Sepul- 
chre shown  as  the  grave  of  Our  Lord  be  in  verity 
the  actual  tomb  in  which  He  was  laid.  He  prepares 
the  way  for  the  discussion  by  presenting  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  tomb  and  its  surroundings  as  they 
must  have  appeared  at  the  time  of  Christ,  stating 
that  he  is  indebted  for  his  reconstruction  not  so 
much  to  the  Scriptural  references,  which  he  shows 
to  be  vague,  as  to  an  analogy  with  the  many  rock- 
cut  tombs  about  Jerusalem,  carefully  explored  by 
himself.  He  next  describes  the  actual  condition  of 
the  place,  quoting  the  account  of  J.  Tucher  of 
Nuremberg,  who  in  1479  made  careful  measure- 
ments, and  adds  the  results  of  his  own  observations. 
The  difficulties  of  the  problem,  he  says,  arise  from 
three  causes:   from  the  inconsistent  accounts  given 

'I,  p.  332.  2  I,  pp.  398-41(5. 


128  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

by  ancient  and  modern  writers,  from  the  various 
destructions  to  which  the  Holy  City  has  been  sub- 
jected ;  and  especially  from  the  fact  that  in  his  day 
the  ordinary  pilgrim  found  the  whole  place  covered 
with  marble,  so  that  ' '  neither  within  nor  without, 
neither  in  the  monument  nor  in  the  place  where  the 
body  was  laid,  is  there  any  stone  or  rock  to  be  seen, 
but  the  whole  .  ...  is  covered  over  with  white 
polished  marble,  which  it  was  not  originally."  He 
traces  the  references  to  the  marble  covering  from 
Arculf's  statement  that  while  the  exterior  of  the 
cave  was  thus  covered,  the  interior  showed  the 
original  rock,  through  the  account  of  an  anonymous 
pilgrim  of  the  year  1200,  who  gives  similar  testi- 
mony, down  to  the  description  of  travellers  of  his 
day,  who  agree  that  no  part  of  the  original  Sepul- 
chre is  visible,  though  they  differ  in  their  views  as 
to  whether  any  portion  of  this  remains.  He  repu- 
diates the  theory,  held  by  some  critics,  that  when 
the  Christians  were  driven  from  Jerusalem,  they 
removed  the  entire  Sepulchre  piecemeal,  on  the 
ground  that  no  church  in  Europe  claims  to  own, 
among  its  relics,  a  chip  from  the  rock.  His  own 
view  is  based  upon  a  final  examination  of  the  in- 
terior by  candle-light  which  revealed  that  the  parti- 
tion containing  the  door  between  the  outer  and  inner 
caves  was  not  encased  with  marble  like  the  walls  on 
either  side,  but  was  bare.  Hence  he  was  able  to 
note  that  it  was  ' '  cut  out  of  the  rock,  not  made  of 
ashlar  work,  but  all  of  one  piece,  with  the  marks  of 
tools  plainly  to  be  seen  upon  it;  in  the  upper  part 
there  seemed  to  have   been  a  fracture  which  had 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  129 

been  mended  with  stones  and  cement."  "From 
this,"  he  concludes,  "it  is  apparent  to  me  that  the 
Lord's  Sepulchre  had  once  been  destroyed  but  never 
completely  rooted  up;  that  what  is  now  there  is  a 
restoration,  and  that  it  has  stood  for  more  than  200 
years  as  it  appears  to-day. ' '  That  Fabri  does  not 
hold  his  theory  dogmatically  is  shown  by  the  words 
closing  the  discussion:  "From  all  that  has  been 
said,  the  devout  and  quiet  pilgrim  should  grasp  the 
fact  that  whether  the  cave  as  it  stands  at  the  pres- 
ent day  be  the  true  and  entire  monument  of  Christ, 
or  whether  a  part  of  it  be  there,  or  whether  none  of 
it  be  there,  matters  very  little  either  one  way  or 
the  other,  because  the  main  fact  connected  with  the 
place  abides  true  ...  to  wit,  that  this  was  the 
place  of  the  most  Holy  Burial  and  Resurrection  of 
Christ  .  .  .  where  there  is  a  monument  erected 
to  Christ,  and  where  the  Sacrament  of  his  Body  has 
been  often  celebrated."  I  commend  the  spirit  of 
these  words  to  the  Iconoclast  who  finds  in  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  nothing  but  degrading  superstition,  re- 
minding him  that,  whether  or  not  he  agrees  with 
Fabri  in  regard  to  the  authenticity  of  the  site,  he 
may  surely  allow  himself  a  thrill  of  sympathy  in 
remembering  that  to  this  "monument  erected  to 
Christ ' '  have  flocked  in  all  ages  multitudes  from 
every  tribe  and  nation  and  kindred  and  tongue. 
The  spirit  of  this  discussion  justifies  us  in  classing 
Felix  Fabri  with  modern  travellers.  Its  logical 
arrangement,  historical  research,  personal  investiga- 
tion, and,  above  all,  its  unprejudiced  tone,  all  show 
the  Dominican  father  to  be  the  worthy  predcces^sor 


130  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

of  the  founders  of  the  "  Ecole  Pratique  d' Etudes 
Bibliques  "  at  Jerusalem. 

The  original  band  of  pilgrims  left  Jerusalem  for 
Jaffa  on  July  22d,  after  making  the  usual  excur- 
sions to  the  Jordan  and  to  Bethlehem,  leaving  be- 
hind Felix,  with  a  few  companions,  to  prepare  for 
their  trip  to  Mt.  Sinai.  The  journey  north  to  Gali- 
lee was  given  up  on  account  of  supposed  danger, 
but  not  without  a  good  deal  of  bitter  feeling  on  the 
part  of  the  minority,  bent  on  seeing  Nazareth  at 
any  risk.  In  the  meantime  Fabri  undertook  some 
minor  explorations  of  Jerusalem  and  its  vicinity  on 
his  own  account.  With  a  Jew  as  guide,  "in  fear 
and  silence,"  he  entered  the  vaults  called  Solomon's 
Stables  by  a  breach  in  the  wall  of  the  Temple  Area.  ^ 
The  Mosque  of  Omar  he  was  able  to  view  only  from 
the  Mount  of  Olives.  He  was  dissuaded  from  going 
to  the  Dead  Sea,  but  not  by  the  dragoman's  "some- 
what theological  argument,  that  the  pilgrims  had 
come  to  visit  Holy,  not  Accursed,  places.  "^  At 
last,  on  August  24th,  the  party  set  out  toward  Gaza 
on  donkeys,  with  twenty-two  camels  to  carry  tents, 
bedding,  and  provisions.  Like  the  traveller  of  to- 
day, at  Hebron  they  were  allowed  only  to  approach 
to  the  steps  of  the  Mosque  containing  the  sepulchres 
of  the  Patriarchs.  As  he  proceeds  toward  Gaza, 
Fabri  attempts  to  identify  the  sites  along  the  route, 
but  without  much  success.  Still,  we  are  indebted  to 
him  for  his  description  of  a  place  which  he  suggests 
may  be  Ziklag.^     He  arrived  at  Gaza  at  nightfall, 

'  Vol.  ii,  pp.  126-29.  '  Vol.  ii,  p.  105. 

••  Vol   ii,  pp.  428  20. 


FROM  FABIil  TO  ROBINSON  131 

having  passed  at  noon  a  lofty  mound,  with  an  ex- 
tensive view,  whose  slopes  were  covered  with  fallen 
masonry,  and  whose  top  was  surmounted  by  strong 
walls  as  of  a  city,  not  of  a  castle.  Robinson  holds 
that  Fabri  is  describing  Tell-el-Hesy.  i  If  this  be 
so,  the  walls  seen  by  Felix  were  those  of  Lachish, 
not  of  Ziklag,  and  were  subsequently  to  his  visit 
buried  in  their  own  debris  until  the  excavations  of 
Dr.  Petrie  and  myself.  ^ 

At  Gaza  the  party  was  so  demoralized  by  a  short 
but  sharp  epidemic  of  sickness  that  a  panic  for  re- 
turn home  seized  most  of  the  members,  who,  how- 
ever, could  not  agree  on  any  one  route.  After  a 
wretched  day  of  plotting  and  counter-plotting,  health 
and  reason  returned  together,  and  with  a  solemn 
compact  to  stick  by  each  other  whatever  happened, 
they  re-determined  to  go  forward  into  the  wilder- 
ness. I  wish  we  could  follow  Fabri  through  his 
thirteen  days'  journey  to  Sinai,  when  privation  and 
discomfort  often  caused  him  to  wonder  ' '  that  the 
Scriptures  should  so  bitterly  reproach  the  children 
of  Israel  for  their  murmurings,  and  that  they  should 
have  been  so  grievously  punished  for  so  doing. "  ^  I 
wish  that  we  could  dwell  upon  his  minute  accounts 
of  the  Holy  Mount  and  the  associated  places,  but  we 
have  already  given  him  proportionally  more  space 
than  he  intrinsically  deserves.  In  explanation  of 
this  apparent  favoritism  we  must  allege  that  his 

'  Researches,  ii,  p.  48. 

^  Note,  however,  that  the  city  walls  excavated  at  Lachish  were 
of  n)ii(l-l)ri<k ;  cf.  Volney's  account,  Voyages,  ii,  p.  311. 
''  II,  p.  516. 


132  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

importance  for  us  lies  in  his  place  in  the  History  of 
Palestine  Exploration. 

For  on  Felix  Fabri  shone  the  first  rays  from  the 
sun  of  the  modern  world,  which  had  been  heralded 
by  a  slowly  but  constantly  brightening  dawn  for 
200  years.  The  light  of  this  dawn  we  have  seen 
reflected  in  our  Palestine  travellers  from  Burchard 
onward.  The  spirit  of  enterprise  firing  the  first 
globe-trotter,  Marco  Polo  (who  wrote  in  1298), 
influenced  the  spirit  of  pilgrimage,  gradually  mini- 
mized the  subjective  element  which  had  dominated 
since  the  days  of  Helena,  intensified  the  objective 
side.  Curiosity  began  to  stimulate  observation; 
observation  demanded  an  adequate  record;  the 
stereotype  phraseology  which  makes  one  pilgrim- 
account  read  so  much  like  every  other,  gave  place  to 
individual  expression.  This  matter  of  free  descrip- 
tion is  indeed  Fabri 's  distinguishing  characteristic, 
is  the  link  that  binds  him  to  the  world  of  to-day. 
His  originality  consists  in  his  manner  of  treating  old 
subjects  rather  than  in  a  choice  of  new  subjects 
to  be  treated.  But  after  him  we  find  new  subjects 
of  research,  new  points  of  view,  logically  associ- 
ated with  the  widening  of  the  field  of  knowledge 
consequent  upon  the  discovery  of  America  (1492), 
of  the  Cape  route  to  India  (1486-98)  and  of  the 
ocean  way  round  the  globe  (1520).  The  dissemi- 
nation of  classical  learning  in  the  West  after  the 
fall  of  Constantinople  (1453)  opened  the  eyes  of 
European  visitors  to  the  Holy  Land  to  monuments 
hitherto  unnoticed  —  monuments  illustrating  that 
splendid  part  of  its  history  unconnected  with  Script- 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  '  133 

ural  events.  Each  important  traveller  added  his 
especial  contribution  to  the  gradual  accumulation  of 
knowledge — one  in  the  hue  of  archaeology,  another 
in  the  field  of  botany,  another  in  a  picturesque  pres- 
entation of  natural  scenery.  The  growth  of  a  curi- 
osity regarding  the  habits  and  customs  of  the  natives 
is  well  illustrated  by  Rauwolf  (1573-75),  who  de- 
scribes the  whole  gamut  of  daily  life  at  Tripoli  and 
Aleppo:  the  construction  of  houses,  even  to  the 
wooden  keys  and  bolts;  the  town  drainage  and  pub- 
lic baths ;  the  dress  of  the  people ;  their  judicial  pro- 
ceedings; their  trades  and  imports;  their  religion 
and  morals ;  their  manner  of  sepulture.  ^ 

Progress  in  geography,  however,  and  especially  in 
the  correct  placing  of  Scriptural  sites,  was  not  com- 
mensurate with  advance  in  other  directions.  The 
false  identifications  of  the  Crusaders  persisted  with 
extraordinary  tenacity.  Here  and  there  we  find  an 
attempt  to  get  away  from  these,  as  in  Pococke  (1738) , 
but  almost  to  the  end  of  the  chapter,  to  mention  two 
examples,  the  Vale  of  Elah  is  usually  placed  at  the 
Wady  Beit  Hanina,  near  Jerusalem,  and  Dothan  at 
Khan  Jubb  Yusif ,  north  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Eastern 
Palestine  was  practically  ignored  till  the  time  of 
Seetzen  and  Burckhardt,  near  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Indeed,  before  them  little  at- 
tempt was  made  to  identify  places  off  the  main  lines 
of  travel,  and  owing  to  the  increased  severity  of 
Moslem  rule  under  the  Turks,  some  of  the  high-roads 
were  often  closed  to  tourists  after  the  second  decade 

'  Some  tliirty  years  before  Rauwolf,  the  Frencb  doctor  Belon  du 
Mans  hud  written  on  tlie  habits  of  the  Turks. 


134  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

of  the  sixteenth  century.  Tolls  were  extorted  from 
pilgrims  at  short  intervals  along  the  various  routes. 
These  are  constantly  reported  until  the  time  of  La- 
martine  (1833),  who  states  that  the  blackmail  levied 
by  the  terrible  chief  of  Abu  Ghosh  had  been  abolished 
by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  the  conqueror  from  Egypt.  The 
excursion  to  Jericho  and  the  Jordan  could  ordinarily 
be  made  only  on  Easter  Monday,  under  escort  of  the 
Governor  of  Jerusalem.  Sandys  (1611)  was  obHged 
to  forego  this  trip,  as  he  arrived  in  the  Holy  City 
too  late.  Thevenot  (1658)  states  that  the  governor 
was  supported  by  300  horsemen  and  200  foot- 
soldiers,  the  pilgrims  numbering  4,000,  as  that 
year  the  Greek  and  Latin  feasts  coincided.  On 
their  return  from  the  Jordan  they  passed  in  single 
file  before  the  governor  one  by  one,  lest  he  lose  any 
portion  of  his  precious  tax.  The  trip  which  he 
desired  to  make  to  the  Dead  Sea  (barely  an  hour's 
ride  out  of  the  way)  was  absolutely  forbidden. 
Maundrell  (1697)  declares  that  the  pilgrims  were 
taxed  whether  they  took  the  trip  or  not,  but  count 
of  the  actual  visitors  was  still  made  in  the  Jericho 
plain.  More  fortunate  than  Thevenot,  he  obtained 
a  special  escort  to  visit  the  Dead  Sea.  Similar 
experiences  are  narrated  by  Pococke  in  1738.  Cha- 
teaubriand, who  was  in  Jerusalem  in  October,  1806, 
congratulated  himself  on  being  able  to  visit  the  Jor- 
dan and  Dead  Sea  by  secret  arrangements  with  a 
man  purporting  to  be  the  Governor  of  Jericho.  The 
tradition  of  blackmail  along  this  route  is  kept  up 
to-day,  all  tourists  being  warned  at  their  consulates 
to  take  a  guard  from  the  Sheikhs  of  Abu  Dis,  near 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  135 

Bethany,  who  claim  the  hereditary  right  to  safe- 
guard travellers.  The  tax  is  cheerfully  paid  by 
those  who  like  to  imagine  the  dangers  of  the  route 
where  the  man  "fell  among  thieves,"  and,  indeed, 
were  it  refused,  there  would  probably  arise  some  in- 
convenience, the  source  of  which  might  be  traced  to 
the  rejected  escort.  ^ 

Samaria  and  Galilee  were  for  a  long  time  in  an  es- 
pecially dangerous  condition.  We  have  noticed  that 
Felix  Fabri  was  warned  against  the  journey  north 
from  Jerusalem.  Pierre  Belon  du  Mans  passed 
through  Shechem  on  his  way  to  Nazareth  in  1548, 
but  Zuallardo,  who  visited  Palestine  in  1586,  when, 
according  to  Conder,^  Christian  influence  was  at  its 
lowest  ebb  in  the  country,  did  not  even  make  the  at- 
tempt, and  George  Sandys  in  1611,  on  his  way  from 
Jerusalem  to  Carmel,  skirted  the  western  base  of  the 
mountains,  taking  an  unusual  route  from  fear  of  the 
Arabs.  After  waiting  long  at  Acre  for  the  chance 
of  an  escort  of  merchants  to  Nazareth  and  the  Sea 
of  Galilee,  he  was  obliged  to  sail  for  Sidon  without 
visiting  the  early  home  of  his  Lord.  Thevenot 
(1658)  reached  Nazareth  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee  from 
Acre,  but  describes  the  land  route  through  Samaria 
only  from  hearsay,  as  the  tolls  made  it  too  expensive 
for  him.  Van  Egmond  and  Heyman,  who  travelled 
between  the  years  1700  and  1723,  also  avoided  the 
inland  route.  Pococke,  whose  extensive  wanderings 
in  1738  took  him  over  many  untrodden  routes  in 

'  Inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  native  or  foreign,  can  to-day  take 
this  route  in  safety,  unguarded. 

^  See  Conder's  art.  on  Zuuihirdo's  travels  (Q.  S  ,  lit02,  p.  IKS)  for 
the  indignities  heaped  on  pilgrims. 


13G  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

Syria  and   Palestine,   went  by   sea  from  Jaffa  to 
Acre.  1 

The  early  part  of  the  period  under  consideration  is 
noteworthy  for  the  inception  of  an  interest  in  archae- 
ology; the  latter  part  for  its  scientific  development. 
While  reviewing  the  course  of  this  interest  in  Pales- 
tine, it  may  be  instructive  to  bear  in  mind  that  this 
runs  parallel  with  its  course  along  Classic  lines. 
During  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  the 
European  habit  of  collecting  ancient  sarcophagi  for 
modern  burial  purposes — a  habit  which  had  obtained 
for  some  time  previous — led  to  the  collection  of 
sculptures  as  models  for  the  studies  of  artists. 
Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  this  enthusiasm 
for  Classic  Art  for  Art's  sake  gave  way  to  a  more 
purely  antiquarian  interest.  Actual  exploration  of 
the  monuments  of  Greece  was  not  conducted  till 
1675-76,  when  Spon  and  Wheler  made  an  exten- 
sive tour.  The  year  previous  to  their  arrival  the 
sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  had  been  drawn  by 
the  French  artist  Carrey.  With  the  discovery  of 
Herculaneum  in  1720,  and  of  Pompeii  in  1748,  the 
antiquarian  spirit  yielded  to  an  historical  and  scien- 
tific method,  best  exempHfied  by  Winckelmann  (1717- 
68). 2     It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Palestine 

'  That  the  inland  route  was  possible,  though  difficult,  is  proved 
by  the  successful  attempts  to  pass  over  it  by  Cotovicus  (1598), 
Pietro  della  Valle  (1G16),  Monconys  (1C4G),  D'Arvieux  (1G60),  and 
Maundrell  (Uil)7). 

^  See  pp.  314-45,  art.  Classical  Archaeology,  Encyc.  Brit.,  by 
Dr.  Murray.  Cf.  Systematik  und  Geschichte  der  Arcbasologie 
der  Kunst,  by  Dr.  C.  B.  Stark,  Leipzig,  1880 ;  especially  sections 
1.".  and  14  of  Chapter  3,  dealing  witli  tlie  beginnings  of  Archieo- 
logical  studies  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  in  the  spirit 
of  the  Renaissance;  and  tlie  Archieology  of  Art  in  the  seventeenth 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  137 

archsBologists  De  la  Roque  and  Maundrell  closely 
followed  upon  Spon  and  Wheler,  the  pioneer  students 
of  Greek  monuments;  and  that  Pococke's  extended 
researches  among  the  ruins  of  the  Holy  Land  oc- 
curred after  the  discovery  of  Herculaneum  and  be- 
fore that  of  Pompeii. 

The  Palestinian  pioneer  in  this  science  appears  to 
be  Kootwyk,  better  known  under  his  Latinized  name 
Cotovicus,  who  visited  the  Holy  Land  at  the  very 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century  (1598-99).  The 
travellers  earlier  in  this  century  touch  on  the  sub- 
ject only  cursorily.  While  the  French  physician 
Pierre  Belon  du  Mans  (1548)  briefly  mentions  ruins 
all  along  his  route,  notes  a  Greek  epitaph  of  Caius 
Csesar  on  an  ancient  masonry  tomb  near  'Hums 
(Emesa),  measures  the  platform  of  the  Temple  of 
Nahleh  in  the  Anti-Lebanon,  and  attributes  the  ter- 
racing of  the  Judean  hills  to  the  ancient  Jews,  yet, 
though  he  seems  to  be  the  first  European  traveller 
after  the  Crusades  to  visit  Baalbec,  he  dismisses  the 
wonderful  temples  in  a  few  words.  Indeed,  that  he 
does  not  claim  to  be  an  archaeologist  is  proved  by  the 
close  of  his  brief  description :  "A  man  curious  re- 
garding antiquities  could  not  see  all  there  is  in  Baal- 
bec in  eight  days,  for  there  are  many  things,  an- 
cient and  most  notable,  which  were  outside  of  our 
range  of  observation;  also  we  did  not  stay  there 
long."  1     The  state  of  his  geographical  learning  is 

and  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  centuries  under  the  domination 
of  an  antiquarian  interest. 

"  Les  Observations  de  Plusieurs  Singularitez  et  Glioses  Meniora- 
bles,  trouvees  en  Grece,  Asie,  Judee,  Egypte,  Arable,  et  autres  jjays 
estranges.  Par  I'ierre  Belon  du  Mans.  Paris,  1555 ;  p.  153  b. 
(First  edition  is  dated  l.")5.S.) 


188  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

illustrated  by  his  identification  of  Baalbec  with  Caesa- 
rea  Philippi,  which  he  acknowledges  was  near  the 
sources  of  the  Jordan ! 

As  Rauwolf  (1573-75)  concerned  himself  chiefly 
with  botany,  his  references  to  archaeology,  though 
often  shrewd,  are  merely  incidental.  ^  He  notes  at 
Jerusalem  that  the  Tyropoeon  valley  between  Zion 
and  the  Temple  has  been  so  filled  up,  since  the  Deso- 
lation, that  no  depth  appears  at  all;  2  that  the  splen- 
did marble  building  shown  as  the  Palace  of  Herod 
is  a  later  construction  on  the  old  site,^  and  that  the 
old  walls  and  arches  outside  of  Helena's  church  at 
Bethlehem  show  that  only  half  of  the  original  struct- 
ure remains.  4  The  point  of  view  of  Johann  Zual- 
lart  (Zuallardo,  1586)  was  that  of  an  ordinary  pil- 
grim. ^  He,  indeed,  mentions  the  ruined  church  at 
Siloam,  but  his  interest  in  it  was  probably  more 
ecclesiastic  than  archaeological.  However,  his  draw- 
ings throw  some  valuable  light  on  the  state  of 
ruins  during  his  day,  and  he  is  the  first  modern 
traveller  to  give  an  account  of  the  so-called  Tombs 
of  the  Kings,  north  of  Jerusalem. 

Cotovicus    (Kootwyk),    however,    recognizes   the 

*  L.  Kauwolf,  Aigentliche  Beschreibung  der  Reyss  so  er  ain  die 
Morgenlaender,  furnehmlich  Syriam,  ludiiam,  etc.,  selbst  vol- 
bracht.  Augsb.,  1581.  English  translation  in  Ray's  Collection  of 
Curious  Trarels  and  Voyages.  (London,  1693.)  References  here 
are  to  this  work. 

=  P.  289.  '  P.  313.  *  P.  375. 

*  II  devotissimo  Viaggio  di  Gierusalemme,  Roma,  1587.  French 
edition  cnhirgcd  by  the  author:  Tres  dt'vot  voyage  de  Jerusalem, 
etc.  AnviTS,  1C04,  etc.  German  edition  .loli.  Schwallurt's  Deli- 
ciae  Ilierosolymitanae,  oder  Pilgerfahrt  in  das  heil-land.  Collui 
IGOG. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  139 

claims  of  archaeology  at  each  place  he  visits.  ^  But 
he  does  not  go  out  of  his  way  to  hunt  up  ruins.  In 
going  from  Damascus  to  Hums  he  takes  the  easier 
route  via  Kuteifeh,  thus  missing  the  Temples  of 
Baalbec.  At  Tyre  he  describes  the  traces  of  Alex- 
ander's mole,  the  ruined  towers,  the  remains  of  the 
Cathedral.  At  Jerusalem  he  measures  the  Porta 
Speciosa,  the  monuments  in  the  valley  of  Jehosha- 
phat,  and  the  Ecce  Homo  Arch ;  notes  the  ruin  shown 
as  the  Tower  of  Antonia,  and  makes  a  thorough 
exploration  of  the  so-called  Tombs  of  the  Kings. 
This  was  motived,  he  says,  by  "the  desire  which 
leads  men  to  know  hidden  things,"  and  was  per- 
sisted in  till  the  uttermost  recesses  were  reached, 
notwithstanding  that  the  explorers  were  ' '  wearied 
and  drenched  with  perspiration. ' '  2  The  resultant 
description  is  fairly  scientific.  Of  the  former  splen- 
dors of  Samaria,  he  tells  us,  none  are  left  but  three 
rows  of  marble  columns.  At  Shechem,  besides  not- 
ing several  ancient  remains,  he  copies  a  Greek  in- 
scription found  on  a  pedestal  built  into  the  wall  of 
an  ancient  tower  in  the  New  Bazaar.  This  he  lo- 
cates so  precisely  that  a  later  traveller  could  not  fail 
to  find  it.  He  notes  that  the  end  of  the  inscription 
is  illegible  from  weathering.  ^  These  may  be  small 
matters,  but  they  indicate  a  new  trend.  In  Coto- 
vicus  a  genuine  archaeological  spirit  had  begun  to 
work. 

To  this  subject  the  most  important  contributions 

'  Itinerarium   Ilierosolymitanuin   et  Syriacum.     Auctore  loauiie 
Cotovico.     Antverpiae,  1619. 

'  Pp.  304-5.  '  Tp.  341-42. 


140  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

of  the  seventeenth  century  were  made  toward  its 
close  by  De  la  Roque,  Halifax,  and  Maundrell.  Still, 
archaeology  was  not  ignored  by  travellers  earlier  in 
the  century.  Sandys,  journeying  along  the  coast  in 
1611,  turned  aside,  "in  the  hopes  of  seeing  some- 
thing of  antiquity,"  to  examine  the  ruins  of  Umm-el- 
'Awamid.  Sandys  did  not  know  either  their  ancient 
or  their  modern  name,  but  notes  that  a  solitary 
column  is  standing  above  the  half-ruined  foundations 
of  an  ample  building.  ^  Quaresmius  (1616-26) 
touches  on  the  antiquities  about  Jerusalem  and  along 
the  various  routes  of  pilgrimage,  but  this  ponder- 
ous ecclesiastic  had  neither  the  archaeological  sense 
nor  the  archaeological  curiosity  of  his  predecessor, 
Cotovicus.  He  does  not  attempt  to  verify  personally 
the  local  statement  "that  the  waters  of  the  Virgin's 
Fountain  flow  through  a  subterranean  tunnel  to 
the  pool  of  Siloam,"  a  fact  apparently  unknown 
to  former  travellers.  ^  However,  he  got  his  friend 
Verhouen  to  test  the  matter,  but  this  gentleman 
could  proceed  no  farther  than  the  middle,  where 
he  was  stuck.  Quaresmius,  however,  adds  that  a 
certain  Father  Julius  was  said  to  have  been  more 
successful,  having  passed  through  the  canal  from 
end  to  end. 

In    Moconys   (1647-48)   we   find   an   interest   in 

'  George  Sandys's  Travailes,  etc.,  London,  IGlo,  etc.  Reference 
here  to  ed.  of  1G73,  p.  1C*J.  Unini-el-'Awaniid  signifies  "The 
Mother  of  Columns  "  ;  it  was  excavated  by  Kenan  in  18G0  and  iden- 
tified with  a  town  of  the  name  of  Laodicea. 

-  Quaresmius  :  Ilistorica  Theologica  et  Moralis  Terne  Sauctu,' 
Elucidatio.  Antv.,  ir.;;i>.  Bk.  IV,  Cap.  27.  See  also  edition  of 
1880-81,  edited  by  Cyprianus  de  Tri-vi.sio,  V^enice. 


FROM  FABRI   TO  ROBIN  SOX  141 

minute  structural  detail.  ^  He  describes  the  construc- 
tion of  a  partly  ruined  ancient  cistern  at  Ramleh, 
noticing  the  layer  of  potsherds  placed  under  the 
outer  coating  of  cement  to  make  the  latter  adhere 
better.  His  little  description  of  the  Baalbec  ^  ruins 
shows  a  far  more  intelligent  conception  of  the  plan  of 
the  great  Temple  than  does  the  more  pretentious 
treatment  of  De  la  Roque.  Recognizing  the  Roman 
style  of  architecture,  he  scouts  the  theory  of  a  Solo- 
monic origin.  In  paying  a  quarter  of  a  piastre  to 
get  the  base  of  a  column  cleaned,  in  order  that  the 
inscription  might  be  read,  he  little  dreamed  that  he 
was  furnishing  the  first  precedent  followed  some  450 
years  later  by  the  German  archaeologists,  who  spent 
thousands  upon  thousands  of  piastres  in  cleaning  up 
the  whole  place!  Doubdan's  (1652)  accounts  of  the 
tombs  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem  are  excellent.  ^ 
To  short  descriptions  of  the  ruins  of  the  country, 
ordinarily  visited,  D'Arvieux  (1658-65)  adds  those 
of  Chateau  Pelerin,  Caesarea,  and  Ascalon.  We 
must  credit  this  traveller  with  his  alleged  discovery 
of  a  ruin  rising  three  feet  out  of  the  Dead  Sea  more 
than  200  paces  in  circumference.  To  this  island 
ruin  his  party  rode  out  on  donkeys  which  were  sub- 

'  Journal  des  Voyages  de  M.  de  Monconys,  consoilleur  dii  Roy, 
etc.  Ou  les  stj'avants  trouveront  un  nombre  infini  des  nouveautez, 
en  Macliine  de  Mathematique,  Experiences  Physiques,  Raisonne- 
mens  de  la  Belle  Pliilosophie,  Curiositez  de  Chyniie,  et  Conversa- 
tions des  Illustres  de  ce  Siecle;  outre  la  description  des  Divers 
Animaux  et  Plantes  rares,  plusieurs  secrets  inconnus  pour  le  plaisir 
et  la  sante,  les  ouvrages  des  Peintres  faineux,  les  Coutunies,  et 
Moeurs  des  Nations,  etc.     lA'on,  lt;7i5. 

''  Vol.  i,  pp.  ;547-r,i 

^  Le  Voyage  de  la  Terre  Saiute,  par  M.  ,].  Doubdan,  Paris,  IfllK], 


142  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

merged  to  the  girths.  D'Arvieux  found  traces  of 
columns  and  indications  that  it  had  been  burned. 
Naturally,  he  supposed  it  to  have  been  one  of  the 
five  cities  which  had  been  destroyed  in  this  vicinity.  ^ 
Among  other  archaeological  notes  the  Jesuit  Father 
Nau  (1674)  minutely  describes  the  ruins  of  'Adlun 
(Ornithopolis) ,  between  Tyre  and  Sidon — a  site  that 
has  no  Scriptural  association  whatever ;  2  he  also  ap- 
pears to  be  the  first  traveller  to  mention  Tell  Hum, 
which  he  says  was  shown  in  his  day  as  the  site  of 
Capernaum.3  iphe  Flemish  artist  De  Bruyn  (1681- 
83)  furnishes  many  drawings  of  ruined  buildings 
and  other  antiquities,  with  a  running  commentary. 
Among  these  we  note  the  sketch  of  a  sarcophagus 
in  the  so-called  Tombs  of  the  Kings,  and  a  page  of 
fac-similes  of  coins,  found  at  Aleppo.'* 

The  first  archaeological  discussion,  based  on  a 
careful  and  prolonged  study  of  ancient  monuments, 
seems  to  be  that  of  De  la  Roque,  who,  in  1688,  spent 
fourteen  days  in  Baalbec,  recording  his  notes  every 
night  and  verifying  them  on  the  ground  the  last 
day.^  Of  the  three  sections  devoted  to  the  subject, 
the  first  contains  a  very  general  description  of  the 

'  Memoires  du  Chevalier  D'Arvieux,  edited  byLabat,  Paris,  1735, 
vol.  ii,  pp.  193-94. 

^  Mich.  Nau,  Voyage  Nouveau  de  la  Terre  Sainte,  Paris,  1679, 
pp.  545-48. 

3  Ibid.,  p    572. 

*  Corn.  De  Bruyn,  Reyzen  door  de  vermaardste  Deelen,  etc., 
Delft,  1099.  French  :  Voyage  au  Levant,  par  Corneille  Le  Brun, 
Dflft,  1700;  see  cuts  124  and  128. 

'  De  la  Roque,  Voyage  de  Syrie  et  du  Mt.  Liban,  Paris,  1717. 
(References  here  to  ed.  of  1722  )  Vol.  i,  pp.  105-90.  See  also 
Voyage  de  la  Palestine,  Amsterdam,  1718. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  143 

Great  Court  and  the  remains  of  the  large  Temple, 
the  plan  of  which  he  seems  not  to  have  understood ; 
the  immense  size  of  the  foundation-stones  is,  of 
course,  noted.  The  second  gives  a  circumstantial 
account  of  the  small  Temple  and  a  description  of  the 
round  temple  outside  the  enclosure.  In  no  case  are 
ground-plans  given,  but  the  author  inserts  a  restora- 
tion of  the  small  temple  within  the  court  and  an  en- 
largement of  its  gateway.  The  third  is  an  historical 
dissertation  on  Baalbec.  Its  identification  with  He- 
liopolis  is  maintained  by  a  review  of  the  literary 
notices  and  by  a  discussion  of  the  coins.  While  he 
cites  a  great  variety  of  authorities,  the  notice  of 
John  of  Antioch  (about  the  seventh  century) ,  ascrib- 
ing the  building  of  the  Temples  to  Aelius  Antoninus 
Pius,  escapes  him,  for  he  asserts  that  history  gives 
no  account  of  their  origin.  For  us  the  interest  in 
this  discussion  centres  not  in  its  intrinsic  value, 
which  is  small,  but  in  its  adoption  of  what  we  call 
modern  methods. 

De  la  Roque's  interesting  investigation  was  soon 
followed  by  a  similar  undertaking  on  the  part  of  an 
enterprising  Englishman.  In  1691  Rev.  William 
Halifax  made  a  careful  study  of  Palmyra,  embody- 
ing his  results  in  an  elaborate  paper  published  in 
England  in  October,  1695.  His  account  is  profusely 
illustrated  with  copies  of  Greek  inscriptions ;  he  also 
gives  a  fac-simile  of  a  Palmyrene  inscription,  the 
letters  of  which  he  does  not  recognize.  ^ 

'  A  relation  of  a  Voyage  from  Aleppo  to  Palmyra,  sent  by  the 
Rev.  .Mr.  William  Halifax  to  Dr.  Edw.  Bernard  :  Philosophical 
Transaetions,  London,  101)5.  A  translation  is  found  in  the  French 
edition  of  Le  Brun. 


U-J:  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

The  antiquities  of  the  Syrian  coast  north  of  Bey- 
rout  are  first  seriously  noticed  by  Maundrell  in 
1697.1  Though  travelling  with  great  rapidity,  he 
made  brief  but  accurate  observations  on  the  Theatre 
at  Jebeleh  (the  ancient  Gabala) ;  on  the  Castle  and 
Church  at  Tortosa;  on  the  strange  sepulchral  tow- 
ers at  'Amrit  (the  ancient  Marathus),  which,  400 
years  before,  struck  the  wonder  of  Burchard;  on  the 
Crusading  Castle  at  Jebeil  (the  home  of  the  ancient 
Giblites),  and  on  various  tomb-chambers  and  sar- 
cophagi seen  along  the  route.  Of  the  judicial  charac- 
ter of  these  observations,  we  shall  give  illustrations 
later.  Palestine  proper  is  treated  in  a  comparatively 
cursory  manner,  and  he  adds  little  to  what  was 
previously  known  of  Jerusalem.  At  Baalbec,  like 
his  predecessor,  De  la  Roque  (whose  description 
is  far  fuller),  he  does  not  seem  to  recognize  the 
extent  and  meaning  of  the  ruins  of  the  Great 
Temple. 

The  interest  of  Van  Egmond  and  Heyman  (1700- 
23)  in  archaeology  is  evidenced  at  the  beginning 
of  the  work  describing  their  travels  by  numerous  in- 
scriptions copied  in  Smyrna,  Ephesus,  Sardis,  etc., 
before  Palestine  was  reached.  ^  In  the  Holy  Land 
these  Dutch  Protestants  often  took  a  fresh  point  of 
view.  While  tradition  had  little  value  to  them,  they 
were  quick  to  observe  actual  conditions.     For  ex- 

'  Henry  Maundrell,  Journey  from  Aleppo  to  Jerusalem  at  Easter, 
1697.     Oxford,  1697,  etc.      References  here  to  edition  of  1749. 

^  Van  Ef^mond  en  Ileyman  :  lleizen  door  een  gedeelte  van  Europa 
.  .  .  Syrion,  Palaestina,  Aegypten,  den  Berg  Sinai,  etc.  Leyden, 
1757.  The  references  here  are  to  the  English  edition,  London, 
1 759. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  145 

ample,  while  the  authenticity  of  the  so-called  Tower 
of  David  at  Jerusalem  is  repudiated,  ^  concerning 
Scandaiium  (Alexandroschene)  we  find  the  observa- 
tion: "  Here  we  see  ruins  of  structures  built  in  dif- 
ferent ages,  plainly  indicating  that  the  first  ruins 
had  been  again  built  on."^  Again,  reasons  are 
given  for  the  theory  that  the  sepulchres  at  'Adlun 
were,  in  fact,  dwelling-houses.^  Between  Aleppo 
and  Alexandretta  one  of  these  travellers  turns  out 
of  the  road  to  examine  the  remains  of  the  Church  of 
St.  Simeon  Stylities,  and  to  copy  the  inscriptions  of 
the  neighboring  sepulchres.  ■*  Archaeology,  however, 
was  not  pursued  by  them  systematically.  Their  ac- 
counts of  the  antiquities  of  the  North  Syrian  coast 
are  cursory  compared  with  Maundrell's,  and  al- 
though their  observations  on  the  monuments  at  Je- 
rusalem are  in  general  full,  in  a  walk  around  the 
city  walls  no  notice  is  taken  of  the  massive  stones 
of  the  temple  foundations. 

Thomas  Shaw  (1722)  made  a  specialty  of  Nat- 
ural History  and  Physical  Geography.^  Still,  his 
work  contains  many  precious  contributions  to  the 
subject  under  our  consideration.  He  explicitly  states 
that  as  he  is  following  in  Maundrell's  steps,  he  takes 
notice  only  of  ' '  such  things  as  seem  to  have  been 
mistaken  or  omitted  by  him."  Attention  should  be 
called   to   his   brief  comparative   study   of   ancient 

'Vol.  i,  p.  374.  2  Vol.  ii,  p.  2:51. 

»  Vol.  ii,  p.  240.  *  Vol.  ii,  pp.  3G7-71. 

'  Travels,  or  Observations  relating  to  several  jjurts  of  Barbary 
and  the  Levant.  By  Thomas  Shaw,  London,  1738.  The  refer- 
ences here  are  to  the  Edinburgh  ed.  of  1808. 


146  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

tombs,  1  and  to  his  recognition  that  the  ruins  of 
'Area,  the  ancient  city  of  the  Arkites,  are  built  upon 
a  mound,  which  was  "  not  a  work  of  nature,  but  of 
art  and  labor. ' '  2  The  especial  value  of  this  latter 
notice  lies  in  its  containing  apparently  the  first 
recognition  of  the  Syrian  mounds,  which  are  to  play 
so  large  a  part  in  the  discoveries  of  the  future. 
That  Shaw's  scientific  spirit  was  interpenetrated 
with  a  genuine  archseological  atmosphere — that  feel- 
ing which  regards  antiquities  not  merely  as  objects 
to  be  measured  or  to  be  catalogued  for  museums, 
but  as  mirrors  of  a  once  living  past — may  be  seen 
in  his  description  of  the  natural  setting  of  the  sepul- 
chral towers  at  Marathus.  ' '  The  situation  of  the 
country  round  about  them, ' '  he  writes,  ' '  has  some- 
thing in  it  so  extravagant  and  peculiar  to  itself  that 
it  can  never  fail  to  contribute  an  agreeable  mixture 
of  melancholy  and  delight  to  all  who  pass  through  it. 
The  uncommon  contrast  and  disposition  of  woods 
and  sepulchres,  rocks  and  grottoes;  the  medley  of 
sounds  and  echoes  from  birds  and  beasts,  cascades 
and  waterfalls;  the  distant  roaring  of  the  sea,  and 
the  composed  solemnity  of  the  whole  place,  may 
naturally  remind  us  of  those  beautiful  descriptions 
which  the  ancient  poets  have  left  us  of  the  groves 
and  retreats  of  their  rural  deities. ' '  ^  Here  Thomas 
Shaw  touches  a  string  of  the  harp  so  exquisitely 
played  upon  in  after  years  by  Chateaubriand,  La- 
martine,  von  Schubert,  and  Renan. 

1  Note  that  this  subject  had  been  treated  in  1706  in  a  monograph 
by  J.  Nieolai  entitled  l)e  Sepulchris  IIehr;eorum.  Quarcsiiiio  also 
touched  upon  it. 

-  Vol.  ii,  p.  24.  '  Vol.  ii,  pp.  21-22. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  147 

The  archaeological  observations  of  Pococke  *  are 
both  complementary  and  supplementary.  He  did 
for  the  antiquities  of  Palestine  proper  what  Maun- 
drell  had  done  for  those  of  Syria,  though  he  also 
notices  these  with  even  greater  fulness.  He  was  ap- 
parently the  first  to  suggest  that  the  so-called  Tombs 
of  the  Kings,  north  of  Jerusalem,  were  the  Sepul- 
chres of  Queen  Helena  of  Adiabene.^  Of  these  he 
gives  a  plan  with  measurements.  The  interior  of 
Samaria  he  did  not  visit,  but  he  carefully  examined 
the  ruins  of  Caesarea  and  Athlit,  the  Chateau  Pe- 
lerin  of  the  Crusaders.  The  plain  of  Acre  he  trav- 
ersed by  several  routes  with  an  eye  to  the  various 
antiquities.  He  went  out  of  his  way  to  visit  places 
of  archaeological  interest.  Thus  he  explored  the 
rock-hewn  fortress  in  the  Wady  Hammam,  west  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  with  its  great  number  of  apart- 
ments. ^  This  cliff -castle  which,  as  we  gather  from 
Josephus,  was  the  haunt  of  robbers  during  the  time 
of  Herod,  was  certainly  out  of  the  beaten  track  of 
travellers.  Thomson,  who  was  practically  a  native 
of  the  land,  writing  about  a  century  later,  says  that 
his  own  visit  to  the  place  had  all  the  romance  of  a 
veritable  discovery.  He  had  never  even  heard  of  it.* 
Pococke  ascribes  its  making  to  the  Druze  Emir 
Fukhreddin  Ma'an,  who  had  died  only  100  years  be- 
fore.    A  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  Temple  at  'Ain 

'  A  Description  of  the  East  and  some  other  countries,  by  Kichard 
Pococke.  LL  I).     London,  1743-4"). 

-  Vol.  ii,  p.  20.  ••'  Vol.  ii,  p.  i\l . 

*  The  Land  and  the  Hook  (ed.  IH.")!!),  vol.  ii,  p.  117.  Note,  how- 
ever, that  Miirckhardt  had  al.so  dc.-crihed  the  place  (Travels,  etc., 

p.  ;;:{0). 


148  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

Fijeh,  the  secondary  source  of  the  Barada,  and  to 
the  rock-hewn  aqueducts  of  this  valley.  ^  He  gives 
plans  of  both  Temples  at  Baalbec,^  thus  preparing 
the  way  for  the  great  work  of  Wood  and  Dawkins 
in  1751.3  We  should  note  that  while  Pococke  often 
mentions  inscriptions,  yet,  unlike  the  indefatigable 
Maundrell,  he  does  not  reproduce  many.  His  achieve- 
ment along  archaeological  lines  can  hardly  be  said  to 
be  commensurate  with  his  opportunity.'* 

The  first  two  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century 
opened  up  a  new  era  of  archaeological  research  in  the 
Holy  Land.  Seetzen  and  Burckhardt  were  veritable 
pioneers  in  the  exploration  of  the  ruins  of  Eastern 
and  Southern  Palestine.  Seetzen  lead  the  way  in 
1805-7  by  visiting  Caesarea  Philippi,  described  by  no 
previous  European  traveller  after  the  Crusades,  by 
exploring  the  'Hauran,  and  by  discovering  the  mag- 
nificent remains  of  Gerasa  and  Philadelphia  at  Jerash 
and  'Amman.  5     Burckhardt,  in  1810-12,  followed 

'  Pococke,  vol.  ii,  chap.  xi.  ^  Ibid,  chap.  vi. 

^  The  Ruines  of  Balbek,  otherwise  Heliopolis,  by  Robert  Wood. 
London,  1757.  Mr.  R.  Phene  Spiers  credits  Wood  with  "  having 
made  one  of  the  most  marvellous  surveys  ever  executed."  (Q.  S., 
1904,  p.  58.)  See  also  the  Ruins  of  Palmyra,  otherwise  Tedmor 
in  the  Desert.     (Wood)  London,  1753. 

*  After  Wood  and  Dawkins,  the  eighteenth  century  has  no  nota- 
ble contributions  to  the  archaeology  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  Nie- 
buhr's  visit  in  1766  was  too  hurried  for  original  work.  Volncy, 
1783-85,  concerned  himself  chiefly  with  the  actual  condition  of  the 
land.  His  elegant  descrii)tion  of  Baalbec  is  an  excei)tion.  Note 
also  his  account  of  Tell-el-Hesy.      (Lachish)  Voyage,  vol.  ii,  p.  31 1. 

*  U.  J.  Seetzen's  Rciscn  durch  Syrien,  Paliistina,  Phonieien,  die 
Transjordan-Liinder,  Arabia,  Petraea  und  Unter  Aegypteu.  Iler- 
ausgegeben  und  commentirt,  von  Prof.  Dr.  Fr.  Kruse.  Berlin, 
1854.  See  also  his  letters  in  Zach".-<  Monatliche  Correspondenz, 
especially  vols,  xvii,  xviii,  xxvi,  xxvii. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  149 

closely  in  his  track,  but  also  constantly  made  diver- 
sions from  this,  adding  new  observations,  and,  like 
Seetzen,  illustrating  his  work  with  a  great  wealth  of 
inscriptions.  To  him  belongs  the  glory  of  the  dis- 
covery of  the  long-lost  Petra.  ^  He  was  also  the 
first  scientific  traveller  to  explore  the  Greek  cities  of 
Apamea  and  Larissa  in  Northern  Syria.  As  a  guide 
to  explorers  who  might  come  after  him,  he  gave  lists 
of  places  and  ruins  which  he  was  not  able  to  visit, 
with  a  careful  transcription  of  the  Arabic  names. 
He  thus  laid  a  scientific  foundation  for  identifications 
based  on  philological  affinities.  Pococke  and  Seet- 
zen both  collected  place-names,  but  the  English  re- 
productions of  the  former  are  sometimes  quite  un- 
recognizable at  first  sight,  even  to  one  who  knows 
the  ground  well,  while  the  latter,  though  he  adopts 
a  scientific  method  of  transliteration,  appears  to  have 
had  a  defective  ear.  After  Seetzen  and  Burckhardt  2 
there  is  no  epoch-making  event  in  the  field  of  archaeol- 
ogy until  the  detailed  researches  of  Robinson,  unless 
we  except  the  work  of  Bonomi,  Catherwood,  and 
Arundale,  who,  in  1833,  succeeded  in  obtaining  ad- 
mission to  the  Haram  Enclosure  and  in  making  the 
first  survey  of  its  buildings. 

Before  taking  a  chronological  view  of  the  chief 
explorers  of  Syria  and  Palestine  between  Fabri  and 

*  Travels  in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,  by  the  late  John  Lewis 
Burekliardt,  London,  1822.  Burckhardt's  somewhat  hurried  obser- 
vations at  Petra  were  supplemented  in  1828  by  the  splendid  ])lates 
accompanying  the  work  of  Laborde  and  Linant  (Voyage  de  1' Arable 
Petree,  Paris,  1830). 

'  The  less  important  work  of  Buckingham,  Legh,  Hankes,  Irby 
and  Mangles,  etc.,  will  be  noticed  in  the  chronological  review, 
pp.  181-82. 


150  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

Robinson  we  may  glance  rapidly  at  the  advance  made 
during  this  period  along  the  lines  of  the  Natural 
Sciences,  especially  Natural  History,  Physical  Geog- 
raphy, and  Geology.  Many  specialists,  indeed,  are 
found,  but  almost  all  writers  make  observations  of 
some  value.  Just  as  attention  to  the  past  was  no 
longer  confined  to  traditions  centring  in  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  so  travellers  began  to  take  broader 
views  of  the  actual  conditions  of  the  land.  Interest 
in  the  Flora  of  the  East  closely  followed  on  to  the 
publication  of  the  first  botanical  printed  work,  by 
Ermolao  Barbaro  in  1492.  Thus  the  French  physi- 
cian Belon  (1548)  dwelt  lightly  on  the  Holy  Places, 
but  everywhere  his  eyes  were  open  to  the  flora  and 
fauna,  as  well  as  to  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
inhabitants.  His  work  is  illustrated  by  rude  wood- 
cuts of  costumes,  animals,  and  plants;  of  the  latter 
he  gives  the  Latin  names.  ^ 

But  the  pioneer  botanist  of  Syria  was  Rauwolf , 
physician  of  Augsburg,  who  started  on  his  travels 
in  1573,  "  enflamed  with  a  vehement  desire  to  search 
out  and  view  foreign  plants  growing  spontaneously 
in  their  native  places. ' '  ^  His  expenses  were  paid 
by  his  brother-in-law,  an  apothecary,  who  hoped  that 
his  trade  might  benefit  by  the  investigations  into 
drugs  and  simples.  Thus,  as  so  often  since,  busi- 
ness and  science  clasped  hands,  but  Rauwolf  never 
forgot  his  scientific  mission.  His  collection  of  dried 
plants,  comprised  in  four  large  volumes,  finally  be- 
came the  property  of  the  University  of  Leyden.  His 
two  years'  rambles  were  mainly  confined  to  Northern 

'  For  title,  see  p.  i;'7.  ^  See  p.  138  for  title  of  his  work. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  151 

Syria,  the  visit  to  Palestine  being  brief  and  more  in 
the  nature  of  an  ordinary  pilgrimage.  The  fullest 
and  most  picturesque  description  is  that  of  the 
Lebanon,  including  a  minute  account  of  the  famous 
grove  of  cedars.  He  also  made  an  excursion  to  the 
Euphrates. 

The  title  of  the  work  of  M.  Balthasar  de  Mon- 
conys  (1647-48)  has  shown  us  the  wide  range  of 
his  scientific  interest.  ^  His  brother-in-law,  M.  de 
Liergues,  was  said  to  have  formed  in  his  museum  at 
Lyons  one  of  the  best  collections  of  medals,  coins, 
paintings,  cameos,  inscriptions,  stones,  insects,  etc., 
found  in  Europe.  The  preface  to  the  work  by  Sor- 
biere  states  that  Monconys's  journeys  were  motived 
by  the  desire  ' '  to  penetrate  the  causes  and  to  seek 
out  the  natural  reasons  of  these  curiosities. ' '  Nat- 
urally, we  find  his  science  mingled  with  superstition. 
Practitioners  of  the  magic  art  attract  him  at  various 
places.  In  Aleppo  he  collects  stones  with  occult 
properties,  and  "herbs  for  knowing  the  wet  and 
the  dry."  At  Sidon  he  takes  down  notes  from  a 
celebrated  savant  who  recommends  as  a  treatment 
for  epilepsy  that  the  physician  should  say  in  the  ear 
of  the  sick  man,  "  Memento  Creatori  tui  in  nomine, 
etc. "  But  Monconys's  work  contains  many  practical 
observations;  he  describes  the  cultivation  of  cotton 
in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon;  he  notes,  on  Christmas 
day,  the  trace  of  the  last  year's  snow  on  a  pass  over 
Lebanon ;  he  revisits  Siloam  to  study  the  alleged  in- 
termittence  of  the  water,  though,  as  it  happens,  at  a 
wrong  hour. 

'  For  title,  see  p.  141. 


152  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

At  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  we  find  the 
labors  of  another  celebrated  Frenchman,  the  botanist 
Tournefort  (1700).i  Previously  in  the  century  the 
flora  of  the  Holy  Land  had  been  treated  by  Ursinus 
(1663)  2  and  Cosquiis  (1664), 3  and  the  fauna  by 
Bochart  (1646)^  and  Majus  (1685.)^  Thomas  Shaw 
(1722)  was  the  first  exponent  of  the  natural  sciences 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  does  not  write  for 
specialists,  but  gives  a  graphic  and  popular  sketch, 
in  broad  outlines,  of  the  general  physical  aspects  of 
the  land.  6  He  notes  the  prevailing  winds,  the  early 
and  latter  rains,  the  seasonal  variations  for  the 
ripening  of  crops,  caused  by  differences  in  latitude 
and  altitude.  He  vindicates  the  Scriptural  assertion 
that  Judea  was  a  land  of  natural  fertility,  pointing 
out  that  its  modern  unfruitfulness  is  due  to  the 
paucity  of  inhabitants  and  to  the  political  insecurity.'^ 
He  proves  by*  statistics  that  the  preservation  of  the 
level  of  the  Dead  Sea  (which  has  no  known  outlet) 
can  be  more  than  accounted  for  by  evaporation, 
there  being  no  need  for  the  assumption  of  some  that 
it  must  have  a  subterraneous  outlet.  ^  His  notes  on 
geology  are  sketchy  and  superficial,  but  he  mentions 

*  Institutiones  Rei  Herbariae  (1700)  and  other  works. 
'  Arboretum  biblicum,  Norimbergae,  1663. 

'  Historia  ac  contemplatio  sacra  plantarum,  arborum  et  herbarum, 
quarum  fit  raentio  in  Sacra  Scriptura,  1C64. 

*  Hierozoicon  sive  bipartitum  opus  de  aniinalibus  S.  Scripturae. 
Londini,  1663. 

*  Brevis  et  accurata  Animalium  in  sacro  cum  primis  codice  me- 
moratorum,  historia;  Francofurti  et  Spir<e,  1686. 

'  See  foot-note,  p.  145. 
'  Shaw,  ii,  p.  145. 
•11,  p.  156. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  153 

the  stratum  containing  fossil-fish  in  the  Kesrouan 
Mountains,  north  of  Bey  rout.  ^ 

In  1747  Linnseus,  in  one  of  his  botanical  lectures 
at  Stockholm,  stated  that  the  world  knew  less  of 
the  natural  history  of  Palestine  than  of  that  of  the 
remotest  parts  of  India.  His  pupil,  Fridrich  Hassel- 
quist,  then  only  twenty-five  years  old,  resolved  to 
supply  the  wanting  information  at  any  cost,  although 
he  was  suffering  from  diseased  lungs.  He  paid  the 
price  of  his  life,  dying  at  Smyrna  in  1752.  During 
the  years  1749-52  he  travelled  in  Egypt,  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  Holy  Land,  specializing  in  botany, 
but  making  observations  in  other  branches  of  physi- 
cal science.  After  his  death  his  collections — com- 
prising dried  plants,  specimens  of  rocks  and  soils, 
drugs,  serpents,  insects,  Arabic  MSS. ,  and  Egyptian 
mummies — were  seized  by  his  creditors,  to  whom 
he  owed  £350.  Linnseus  could  not  lay  his  hand  on 
the  money  at  the  moment,  but  the  Queen  of  Sweden 
redeemed  the  collections  out  of  her  own  private 
purse.  She  also  directed  Linnseus  to  arrange  and 
publish  Dr.  Hasselquist's  own  original  MSS.  "I 
have,  accordingly,"  says  he,  in  his  Preface, ^  "di- 
gested the  work  in  the  best  manner  I  could;  ranged 

'  II,  p.  154.  Le  Brun  (1681-83)  gives  a  wood-cut  (No.  154)  of 
the  fossil-fish. 

^  Frid.  Hasselquist :  Iter  Palestinum,  etc.  Stockholm,  1757.  The 
ahove  quotation  is  from  the  English  edition  :  Voyages  and  Travels 
in  the  Levant  in  the  years  1749-52,  containing  observations  In 
Natural  History,  Physick,  Agriculture,  and  Commerce,  particularly 
of  the  Holy  Land,  and  the  Natural  Ili-story  of  the  Scriptures. 
Written  originally  in  the  Swedish  language  by  the  late  Frederick 
Hasselquist,  M.I).  Published  by  order  of  her  present  Majesty  the 
Queen  of  Sweden,  by  Charles  Liniueus.      London,  17tiG. 


154  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

everything  under  its  proper  tribe ;  added  names  to 
animals  and  plants;  altered  the  technical  terms  and 
manner  of  writing,  without  changing  in  the  least 
the  author's  meaning."  Hasselquist's  journals  ap- 
pear to  have  been  published  with  little  alteration,  as 
well  as  his  letters  to  Linnseus,  but  the  tabulated 
lists  were  compiled  by  his  master.  To  him  the 
original  notes  gave  every  assistance,  as  they  furnish 
precious  indications  of  date  and  locality.  In  the 
section  entitled  the  ' '  Natural  History  of  Palestine  ' ' 
the  items  are  arranged  according  to  geographical 
distribution.  The  heading  of  another  section  reads : 
' '  Plants  and  animals  mentioned  in  Scripture :  those 
that  may  and  may  not  be  identified  in  the  present 
land."  In  Hasselquist's  journals  we  can  follow  the 
wide  range  of  his  interests.  He  notes  at  Bethlehem 
* '  a  compendious  method  of  watering  the  earth  in  dry 
weather,"  an  ingenious  device  by  which  a  peasant 
may  plough  the  earth  and  water  it  at  the  same  time.^ 
He  carefully  follows  the  methods  of  bee-keeping  in 
Galilee.  2  At  Sidon  he  seizes  a  long-looked-for  oppor- 
tunity to  observe  the  habits  of  the  silk-worm  ^ — a 
study  that  he  had  been  unable  to  pursue  before, 
owing  to  a  wide-spread  superstition  that  the  eye  of 
a  stranger  blights  the  life  of  the  worm.^ 

'  p.  146.  '  p.  154.  «  P.  1G7. 

*  Other  botanical  works  of  this  century  are  as  follows  :  Hierophy- 
ticon  sive  Commcntarius  in  loca  Scriptura,  etc.,  by  M.  Hillerus, 
1706 ;  the  Hierobotanicon  sive  de  Plantis  Scripturse  Sacrae,  by  A. 
Celsius,  1745;  the  Natural  History  of  Aleppo,  by  Alexander  Rus- 
sell, 1750,  noteworthy  for  its  carefully  prepared  list  of  the  Oriental 
names  ai)i»lie(l  to  the  Flora  of  the  East;  the  Flora  Pakstina;,  by 
B.  T.  Strand,  175G. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  155 

In  1783-85  Volney  made  a  considerable  contribu- 
tion to  the  Physical  Geography  of  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine. 1  His  work,  which  deals  rather  with  the  modern 
conditions  of  the  land  than  with  the  past,  is  divided 
into  two  parts:  Etat  Physique  and  Etat  Politique. 
Though  based  on  personal  travels,  the  account  does 
not  take  the  narrative  form.  His  broad  outlines, 
showing  a  firm  grasp  on  his  subject,  are  filled  in 
with  a  wealth  of  picturesque  detail.  He  deals  with 
his  material  in  a  scientific,  philosophic  spirit,  thus 
sounding  again  the  note  of  Shaw.  In  the  depart- 
ment of  popular  meteorology  he  advances  upon  the 
latter. 

Far  more  scientific  are  the  meteorological  notes  of 
Riippell  (1826-31), 2  but  these  touch  only  the  edge  of 
our  subject  at  the  point  where  they  deal  with  Arabia 
Petraea.  Besides  long  lists  of  meteorological  and 
astronomical  observations,  taken  daily,  we  find  notes 
on  the  Arab  tribes — their  classification,  character, 
and  habits.  In  the  matter  of  geology  Riissegger 
(1836-38)  3  may  be  said  to  have  led  the  way,  though 
judicious  notes  touching  on  this  subject  and  on 
general  physical  characteristics  may  be  found  scat- 

'  C.  Volney,  Voyage  en  Syrie  et  en  Egypte,  etc.,  Paris,  1787. 
See  also  Oeuvres  Completes  de  Volney,  Paris,  1837. 

^  Eduard  Riippell :  Ileisen  in  Nubien,  Kordofan,  und  den  Petrai- 
schen  Arabien,  Frankfurt,  1829.  Also :  Ileisen  in  Abyssinien, 
Frankfurt,  1838-40.  In  tlie  latter  work  the  author  describes 
another  visit  to  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  taken  in  1831  in  order 
to  make  more  accurate  observations  of  the  elevations  of  the 
mountains. 

'  Reisen  in  Europa,  Asion  und  Afrika,  etc.,  unternommen  in 
don  .lahren  1835  bis  1841,  von  Joseph  Riissegger.  Stuttgart, 
184I-4'J. 


156  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

tered  through  the  works  of  Seetzen,  Burckhardt, 
Irby  and  Mangles,  Laborde,  von  Schubert,  etc.i 

Having  now  followed  the  trend  of  exploration 
from  Fabri  to  Robinson  along  the  specialized  lines  of 
research,  I  must,  at  the  risk  of  some  repetition,  take 
a  rapid  chronological  view  of  the  chief  among  the 
visitors  to  the  Holy  Land  during  this  period.  From 
this  great  horde  each  historian,  who  would  seek  to 
illustrate  the  period  by  examples,  is  bound  to  make  a 
choice  differing  in  some  particulars  from  that  of  every 
other.  Ritter,  in  his  critical  bibliography,  accords 
the  highest  praise  to  writers  to  whose  names  Robin- 
son does  not  affix  the  distinguishing  star.  In  the 
present  sketch,  while  endeavoring  to  include  every 
great  writer,  I  have  also  noticed  a  few  whose  general 
intrinsic  importance  is  slight,  but  who,  by  fitting  into 
some  particular  niche,  or  by  illustrating  some  char- 
acteristic failing,  serve  to  fill  out  my  story  of  the 
development  of  Palestine  Exploration,  understood  in 
a  broad  sense. 

Belon  du  Mans  (1548)  and  Rauwolf  (1673-75) 
have  already  been  sufficiently  considered,  as  their 
value  is  largely  in  the  field  of  physical  observa- 
tion. 2  In  the  Fleming  Johann  Zuallart  (better 
known  by  the  Italianized  form  of  his  name — Zual- 
lardo)   the  religious  element  is  dominant,   ranking 

'  During  the  first  third  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  contribu- 
tions to  Botany  were  not  many.  However,  Chirke  (1801)  in  his 
preface  claims  to  have  added  "  not  less  than  60  new  discovered 
species  "  to  the  science;  Seetzen  (1805-7)  and  von  Schubert  (1837) 
also  paid  especial  attention  to  the  subject. 

^  For  titles  of  works  of  authors  already  mentioned,  tee  foot  notes 
to  pp.  137-55. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  157 

him,  indeed,  with  genuine  pilgrims,  though  with 
pilgrims  of  the  more  educated  class;  but  he  is  dif- 
ferentiated from  his  predecessors  by  his  successful 
attempt  to  illustrate  his  work  with  sketches  and 
ground-plans  made  by  himself.  ^  Prominent  among 
these  is  a  bird's-eye  view  of  Jerusalem  as  it  was  in 
his  day,  on  which  is  marked  the  theoretic  line  of  the 
second  wall  in  a  manner  to  include  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre.  In  another  are  seen  the  ruins  of 
the  Crusading  Castle  of  Toron,  near  the  western 
border  of  the  Judean  Hills,  but  in  a  far  more  com- 
plete condition  than  they  are  now.  The  rock-hewn 
scarp  which  towers  to-day  above  the  Protestant 
Cemetery  in  Jerusalem,  and  which  once  formed  the 
southwest  angle  of  the  city,  appears  in  his  picture 
of  Mt.  Zion.  Other  engravings  show  the  Ecce 
Homo  Arch,  the  Via  Dolorosa,  the  monuments  in 
the  Kedron  Valley,  various  views  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, Bethany,  Bethlehem,  Jaffa,  Tripoli,  etc.  Many 
of  these  engravings  were  copied  by  writers  for  forty 
years,  by  Cotovicus  of  Utrecht  (1598-99),  by  the 
Englishman  Sandys  (1611),  and  by  the  Spaniard 
Castillo  (1627). 

Zuallardo's  party  spent  only  seventeen  days  in  the 
Holy  Land  proper,  confining  their  visits  to  Jerusalem 
and  the  immediate  vicinity.  On  their  return  to 
Jaffa,  the  pilgrims  proceeded  by  sea  to  Tripoli, 
whence  they  waited  almost  a  month  for  a  ship  to 
Venice.  Ample  leisure  was  thus  given  Zuallardo 
for  exploring  the  only  Syrian  town  visited  by  him. 

'  The  work  is  ruri".  An  oxi-ollcnt  resume  of  its  contents  by 
Condcr  is  fotinii  in  C^.  S.,  ]!I02.  iip.  HT-  105. 


158  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

His  account  is  rich  in  detail,  especially  as  regards 
the  different  costumes  worn  by  Turks,  local  Mos- 
lems, Greeks,  Maronites,  and  Jews, 

It  is  not  difficult  to  agree  with  Robinson,  who  de- 
clares that  the  work  of  Johann  Kootwyk  (Latinized 
form:  Cotovicus)  (1598-99)  is  more  complete  and 
important  than  any  other  of  the  sixteenth  or  pre- 
ceding centuries.  But  as  I  have  already  dwelt  upon 
what  appears  to  me  to  be  his  most  important  contri- 
bution, namely,  the  discriminating  archsBological 
notes  which  mark  him  a  pioneer  in  this  science,  I 
can  here  give  only  a  passing  tribute  to  his  exact 
description  of  routes,  his  learned  marginal  refer- 
ences, his  close  observation,  his  condensed  style.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  he  owes  much  to  the 
voyage  of  Zuallart,  copying  not  only  his  pictures, 
but  apparently  also  various'  prayers  and  hymns  re- 
peated by  the  monks. 

George  Sandys,  whose  visit  to  Palestine  formed 
only  a  part  of  extended  travels  made  in  1610-11, 
states  that  according  to  his  knowledge  his  account 
of  Jerusalem  and  its  vicinity  is  the  first  written  in 
the  English  language.  ^  In  this  he  declares  his  aim 
to  be  "  to  deliver  the  reader  from  many  erring  re- 
ports of  the  too  credulous  devotee,  and  too,  too 
vain-glorious."  His  aim  he  accomplishes,  present- 
ing a  picture  of  the  natural  features  of  the  city  and 
of  the  Holy  sites  with  fidelity  and  without  exaggera- 
tion. The  extent  of  his  trip  was  curtailed  by  the 
danger  of  travel  in  his  day;  the  clearness  and  pre- 
cision with  which  he  details  the  routes  he  was  able 

'  Sandys,  p.  120. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  159 

to  take  lead  us  to  regret  his  enforced  limitations. 
Listen  to  this  little  description  of  his  ride  from  Gaza 
to  Ramleh:  ^  *'  We  passed  this  day  through  the  most 
pleasant  and  pregnant  valley  that  eye  ever  beheld. 
On  the  right  hand  a  ridge  of  high  mountains  (whereon 
stands  Hebron) ;  on  the  left  hand  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  bordered  with  continued  hills,  beset  with  variety 
of  fruits.  .  .  .  The  champion  between,  about 
twenty  miles  over,  full  of  flowery  hills  ascending 
leisurely,  and  not  much  surmounting  their  ranker 
valleys,  with  groves  of  olives  and  other  fruits  dis- 
persedly  adorned. "  As  I  read,  many  half -forgotten 
details  of  this  route,  taken  so  often  over  ten  years 
ago,  when  Gaza  was  the  post-town  of  my  camp  at 
Tell-el-Hesy,  rise  before  me  with  delightful  vivid- 
ness. 

The  single  letter  in  which  the  great  traveller 
Pietro  Delia  Valle  (1616)  describes  his  journey  from 
Cairo  to  Aleppo  along  the  ordinary  pilgrim  routes, 
adds  little  or  nothing  to  our  previously  gained 
knowledge  of  the  land.  2  But  the  Vatican  Library 
preserves  to-day  a  precious  monument  of  this  rapid 
trip  in  the  copy  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch — said 
to  be  the  first  ever  brought  to  Europe — which,  to- 
gether with  a  copy  of  the  Targum,  he  bought  at 
Damascus. 

The  huge  work  of  Francesco  Quaresmio  (1616-26) 
is  the  apotheosis  of  scholasticism.     In  it  the  tradi- 

'  Sandys,  p.  117. 

^  ViagKt'  <li  Pietro  Delia  Valle  il  Pellegrino.  .  .  .  Dcscritti 
da  lui  mcdoHimo  in  54  Lettore  familiari,  etc.  Roma,  1G50.  Also 
in  many  other  editions  and  in  translations  into  French,  English, 
German,  and  Dutch. 


160  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

tions  of  the  Holy  Places,  largely  erroneous,  which 
had  been  increasing  for  years,  took  on  a  stereotyped 
form  which  has  enjoyed  little  variation  since  in  ec- 
clesiastical circles.  The  book  is  full  of  learning,  but 
this  is  often  learning  running  riot  around  matters 
essentially  trivial.  The  colossal  prolixity  of  the 
writer  lures  him  sometimes  into  a  sort  of  ' '  House- 
that-Jack-built  "  treatment  of  his  material.  We 
find  a  series  of  chapters  expounding  the  difficulties 
in  understanding  the  reasons  why  God  allowed  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  to  be  possessed  and  devastated  by 
infidels;  probable  reasons  for  said  possession  and 
devastation;  objections  to  these  reasons;  answers  to 
these  objections,  and  so  on  ad  infinitum.  It  is  not 
sufficient  to  have  a  whole  chapter  devoted  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  crown  of  thorns  and  the  nails  by  which 
the  Lord  was  fastened;  this  must  be  followed  by 
another  entitled  ' '  The  condition  of  the  crown  of 
thorns  and  the  number  of  the  nails. "  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  Quaresmio  refutes  to  his  own  satisfac- 
tion the  arguments  of  ' '  Western  Heretics  ' ' — topo- 
graphical and  other — directed  against  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  ^  Thus  early  had 
scepticism  in  regard  to  the  traditional  sites  begun  to 
voice  itself. 

The  subject-matter,  whatever  may  be  its  scientific 
value,  is  arranged  in  eight  books.  Book  I  gives 
the  boundaries  and  divisions  of  the  Holy  Land,  with 
elaborate  accounts  of  the  religious  sects,  Christian 
and  otherwise.  In  Book  II  we  find  the  Latin 
Orders  described  at  length,  besides  sections  on  In- 

'  Lib.  V,  reri'gr.  ii,  Cap.  14. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  161 

dulgences.  Book  III  treats  the  subject  of  pil- 
grimage theoretically,  while  Books  IV  to  VIII  (in- 
clusive) tabulate  the  various  routes  and  stations  of 
the  pilgrimages  in  a  systematic  manner.  For  ex- 
ample, the  first  pilgrimage  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem 
has  ten  sub-headings  of  places  (Loci).  The  full 
history  of  a  place  is  given  in  loco.  "While  Qua- 
resmio  often  refers  to  his  own  experiences,  the  itin- 
eraries do  not  take  the  personal  form.  There  are 
gaps  between  itinerary  and  itinerary  such  as  the  leap 
from  Beyrout  to  Tripoli.  The  work  is  illustrated 
with  well-engraved  pictures  and  plans. 

"We  have  already  noticed  the  scientific  pretensions 
as  well  as  the  shrewd  archaeological  observations  of 
Monconys  (1647-48.)  Equally  shrewd  are  his  con- 
densed, very  clear  notes  on  everything  that  catches 
his  eye  during  his  somewhat  rapid  journey  from 
Jerusalem  to  Adana.  I  find,  to  name  one  example, 
the  route  between  Baalbec  and  the  Cedars,  which 
crosses  the  backbone  of  the  Lebanon,  described  with 
detail  which,  though  brief,  is  strikingly  accurate. 

Early  in  the  third  quarter  of  this  seventeenth  cen- 
tury two  Frenchmen  travelled  in  Palestine,  record- 
ing their  impressions  in  works  of  some  importance, 
but  of  very  different  quality.  The  personal  investi- 
gations of  M.  J.  Doubdan,  Canon  of  St.  Denis,  were 
confined  mainly  to  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem  and 
Nazareth,  but  he  supplemented  his  observations  by 
abundant  quotations  from  the  chief  writers  of  Classic, 
Patristic,  and  Mediaeval  times.  He  saw  nothing  new, 
he  saw  a  small  part  of  what  had  been  described  be- 
fore, but  he  exhibits  a  learning  and  research  which 


162  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

gives  real  value  to  his  work.  The  Chevalier  D'Ar- 
vieux,  gentleman  of  Provence,  illustrates  the  debt 
that  Exploration  owes  to  Commerce.  His  connection 
with  the  French  Factory  at  Sidon  from  1658  to  1665 
gave  him  abundant  opportunities  to  travel  all  over 
the  country  with  the  especial  facilities  for  obtaining 
accurate  information  as  to  its  actual  condition  avail- 
able to  a  man  of  affairs,  able  to  converse  with  the 
natives  in  the  vernacular.  These  opportunities  he 
used  with  intelligence.  His  accounts  of  the  chief 
cities  —  their  public  buildings,  gardens,  produce, 
commerce — are  full  and  authoritative.  Interwoven 
with  the  narrative  is  much  current  history,  richly 
illustrative  of  folk-lore.  From  his  itemized  list  of 
expenses  we  are  able  to  know  the  cost  of  a  tour  in 
the  Holy  Land  during  his  day.  A  visit  to  the  Grand 
Emir,  Chief  of  the  Arab  Princes,  encamped  at  Mt. 
Carmel,  furnishes  him  with  material  for  more  than 
a  score  of  chapters  on  the  Manners  and  Customs  of 
the  Arabs.  ^  Different  as  were  their  points  of  view, 
both  D'Arvieux  and  Doubdan  seemed  to  feel  the 
necessity  of  describing  the  landmarks  along  their 
routes  so  clearly  that  "the  wayfaring  men,  though 
fools,  should  not  err  therein."  In  this  precision 
their  contemporary  and  fellow-countryman  Thevenot 
shares :  at  a  perplexing  point  of  cross-roads  he  tells 
you  which  path  to  take,  which  to  avoid.  Thevenot, 
however,  has  little  to  add  to  our  subject.     He  took 

'  Before  tlie  Memoires,  appeared,  this  account  was  published 
separately  under  the  title  Voyage  dans  Palestine  vers  le  Grand 
Emir,  etc.,  edited  by  De  la  Roque.  Paris,  1717;  Amsterdam, 
1718.     Xote  that  D'Arvieux  was  also  Consul  in  Aleppo,  1682-86. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  163 

few  routes,  but  described  many,  filling  in  his  own 
lacunce  from  the  accounts  of  others,  but  without 
showing  the  learning  of  Doubdan.  ^ 

The  Jesuit  Father  Michel  Nau  is  one  of  the  ear- 
liest examples  of  the  missionary — explorer — a  type 
so  well  illustrated  during  the  last  century  both  by 
Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants.  Robinson  ranks 
him  with  Maundrell  and  Pococke  as  among  the  lead- 
ing travellers  to  Palestine.  We  have  already  noticed 
that  he  is  the  first  to  record  the  association  of  Tell- 
Hum  with  Capernaum.  Robinson  notes  that  the 
Crusading  Castle  of  Toron,  referred  to  by  Nau  when 
he  passed  that  way  in  1674,  had  been  apparently  un- 
visited  and  unknown  since  the  time  of  the  Crusades. 
He  surely  must  have  had  ample  opportunity  for 
visiting  out-of-the-way  places,  as,  according  to  De 
la  Roque,  he  passed  thirty  years  in  the  land.  De  la 
Roque  himself  (1688-89)  made  considerable  preten- 
sions in  the  geographical  line,  which  were,  however, 
misguided.  His  attempt,  as  he  sailed  along  the  coast 
between  Tripoli  and  Sidon,  to  square  Strabo's  descrip- 
tion of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Libanus  as  running  in 
parallel  lines  eastward  from  the  coast  with  his  own 
observations  which  naturally  contradicted  this  absurd 
statement — this  attempt  led  him  into  an  equally  ab- 
surd set  of  statements  about  double  triangles  with 
bases  almost  touching,  presenting  the  appearance 
of  an  apparently  continuous  ridge  facing  the  sea! 
Thus  Tyre,  for  him,  was  at  the  foot  of  the  Anti- 
Libanus.      More  edifying  are   his   accounts  of  his 

'  Relation  d'unVoyairc  fait  an  Levant  .    .   .    par  M.  fie  Thevenot. 
Paris,  Hii't').     Also  published  later  under  other  titles.     See  Koliricht. 


164  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

actual  visit  to  the  Lebanon,  and  of  the  ruins  of  Baal- 
bec,  which  we  have  already  noticed. 

On  February  27,  1697,  the  Rev.  Henry  Maun- 
drell,  Chaplain  of  the  English  Factory  at  Aleppo, 
started  for  Jerusalem  to  witness  the  Easter  cere- 
monies. The  published  diary  of  his  trip  went 
through  numerous  editions,  and  was  translated 
into  French,  German,  and  Dutch.  Says  Robinson: 
' '  His  book  is  the  report  of  a  shrewd  and  keen 
observer,  and  still  remains  perhaps  the  best  work 
on  those  parts  of  the  country  through  which  he 
travelled."  Turning  to  the  diary  we  find  the 
four  traits — eminently  characteristic  of  Robinson 
himself — which  doubtless  operated  in  securing  to 
Maundrell  such  high  praise  from  his  critical  suc- 
cessor: minute  observation;  fertility  in  suggesting 
theories;  abstention  from  dogmatism  in  presenting 
these;  acknowledgment  of  self -limitations.  While 
travelling  along  the  coast  north  of  Tripoli,  Maun- 
drell is  on  the  lookout  for  the  river  Eleutherus,  fol- 
lowing the  somewhat  indefinite  indications  of  the 
classical  geographers,  and  aware  that  the  identifica- 
tion with  the  river  Kasmiyeh  between  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  commonly  held  in  his  day,i  must  be  incor- 
rect. To  this  end  he  notes  all  the  streams  in  the 
plain  of  Junieh — among  these,  the  Nahr-el-Kebir,  the 
real  Eleutherus,  making  several  suggestions  and 
summing  up  as  follows :   ' '  But  I  will  not  determine 

'  Maundrell  is  apparently  unaware  that  the  identification  held  in 
liis  day  was  questioned  by  I)e  la  Iloque,  who  also  places  the  Eleu- 
tlierus  in  the  plain  of  Junieh.  Doubts  had  previously  been  ex- 
pressed by  Doubdan. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  165 

anything  on  this  point,  contenting  myself  to  have 
given  an  account  of  several  rivers  as  we  passed 
them. ' '  *  After  noting  that  the  apse  of  the  other- 
wise ruined  church  at  Tyre  stood  tolerably  complete, 
he  makes  the  following  observation,  based  on  an 
examination  of  a  hundred  ruined  churches :  ' '  Whether 
the  Christians  when  overrun  by  infidels  redeemed 
their  altars  from  ruin  with  money ;  or,  whether  even 
the  barbarians,  when  they  demolished  the  other 
parts  of  the  churches,  might  voluntarily  spare  these 
out  of  an  Awe  and  Veneration;  or,  whether  they 
have  stood  thus  long,  by  reason  of  some  peculiar 
Firmness  in  the  nature  of  their  Fabrick;  or  whether 
some  occult  Providence  has  preserved  them  .  . 
I  will  not  determine.  .  .  .  This  might  justly 
seem  a  trifling  Observation  were  it  founded  upon  a 
few  examples  only.  But  it  being  a  Thing  so  often, 
and  indeed  so  universally  observed  by  us,  through 
our  whole  journey,  I  thought  it  must  needs  proceed 
from  something  more  than  blind  Chance,  and  might 
very  well  deserve  this  Animadversion. "  2  Such 
passages  which  illustrate  Maundrell's  temper  of 
mind  cause  us  to  regret  that  so  candid,  so  scientific 
a  writer  was  only  incidentally  an  explorer,  that  he 
travelled  so  hastily  and  along  only  a  few  routes. 
Leaving  the  sea-coast  at  Acre,  he  struck  across  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  to  Samaria  and  thence  proceeded 
to  Jerusalem.  His  journey  back  to  Sidon  was  prac- 
tically by  the  same  route  with  a  detour  to  Nazareth. 
From  Sidon  he  crossed  the  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
Lebanon  to  Damascus.  On  his  return  to  the  coast 
'  r.  2r,.  '  p.  49. 


166  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

from  that  city  he  visited  Baalbec  and  the  Cedars. 
His  archseological  observations  we  have  noticed  in  a 
previous  paragraph.  But  he  does  not  pay  much  at- 
tention to  Scriptural  Identifications.  He  slept  at 
Lejjun  on  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  but  he  makes 
reference  neither  to  Megiddo  nor  to  the  neighboring 
Jezreel.  However,  he  questions  the  traditional  site 
of  the  Mount  of  Transfiguration  at  Tabor,  i  At  Je- 
rusalem he  confined  himself  principally  to  visiting 
the  places  ordinarily  shown  to  travellers,  but  he 
paced  the  circuit  of  the  city  walls,  declaring  their 
circumference  to  be  two  and  a  half  miles,  not  far 
from  the  correct  figure. 

We  have  now  to  consider  a  work  of  ' '  composite 
authorship,"  in  which,  however,  the  initial  letters, 
by  which  the  two  manuscripts  might  be  denoted, 
represent  the  names  of  historical  persons,  and  the 
"redactor"  was  an  ordinary  physician  in  Ley  den. 
John  Hey  man,  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  in 
the  University  of  Leyden,  travelled  in  the  East  from 
1700  to  1709;  the  journeys  of  J.  E.  Van  Egmond, 
Dutch  Ambassador  at  Naples,  were  taken  between 
the  years  1720  and  1723.  Many  years  after.  Dr. 
J.  W.  Heyman  fused  together  their  journals  in  such 
a  way  that  the  observations  of  the  two  travellers  are 
not  distinguished.  The  question  whether  they  can  be 
distinguished  without  a  harking  back  to  the  original 
diaries,  I  leave  for  polychrome  critics  to  consider. 
In  the  meantime,  in  the  absence  of  an  indefinite 
English  pronoun,  the  use  of  the  third  person  plural 
may  be  conceded  me  despite  its  inaccuracy. 

'P.  113. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  167 

It  has  already  been  hinted  that  these  Dutch  Prot- 
estants tried  to  free  themselves  from  the  incubus 
of  unintelligent  tradition.  At  the  Dead  Sea,  which 
they  visited  under  especial  escort,  they  disproved  by 
actual  experiment  the  statement  reiterated  from 
hoary  antiquity  to  their  own  time  that  birds  flying 
over  its  surface  fell  dead  by  reason  of  the  horrible 
effluvia  emanating  from  the  water.  Plucking  the 
wing  feathers  from  some  birds,  they  let  them  loose 
on  the  sea  and  watched  to  see  what  would  happen. 
After  a  short  flight  the  birds  ' '  fell  into,  or  rather 
upon,  the  sea ' '  and  got  safe  ashore.  ^  They  attribute 
the  origin  of  the  so-called  Greek  fire  to  ecclesiastical 
policy,  noting  that  while  the  Romish  Fathers  were 
avowedly  doing  their  best  to  expose  the  ' '  juggle 
and  delusion,"  they  date  the  deceit  only  from  the 
schism,  holding  that  the  fire  did  previously  have  the 
virtue  of  not  consuming  those  that  handled  it.  2  Ge- 
ography and  Scriptural  identification  receive  little  at- 
tention, and  this  little  is  often  wrong.  For  example, 
it  is  suggested  that  the  remains  of  a  town  at  the  end 
of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias  may  possibly  represent  Beth- 
shean  (Scythopolis) ,  which  really  is  some  fifteen 
miles  to  the  south. ^  But  the  Dutch  travellers  are 
among  the  first  to  give  a  true  account  of  the  origin 
and  of  some  of  the  tenets  of  the  Druses,  in  regard 
to  whom  so  much  nonsense  had  been  believed.  ^  As 
late  as  1647  Monconys  had  declared  that  they  were 
descendants  of  the  Crusaders,  but  had  lost  the  Chris- 
tian religion  through  neglect  to  practise  its  rites ;  as 

'  Vol.  i,  p.  .•J39.  ^  Vol    i,  p.  357. 

•  Vol.  ii,  p.  as.  '  Vol.  ii.  pp.  21)3  ff. 


168  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

they  had  not  embraced  Mohammedanism,  they  were 
without  any  religion.  ^  Our  authors  recognize  Hamza 
as  the  real  founder  of  this  sect  early  in  the  eleventh 
century,  but  show  that  its  name  was  derived  from 
Durzi,  who  preached  the  doctrine  in  Syria.  ^ 

We  have  noticed  how  scepticism  in  regard  to  the 
authenticity  of  the  sites  enshrined  in  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  aroused  the  indignation  of  Qua- 
resmio  early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  About 
100  years  later  the  subject  was  vigorously  handled 
by  Jonas  Korte  (1738),  a  bookseller  of  Altona.  One 
of  his  chapters  he  boldly  entitles :  ' '  Concerning  Mt. 
Calvary,  which  now  lies  in  the  middle  of  the  city  and 
cannot  therefore  be  the  true  Calvary.  "^  Without 
assigning  a  reason  for  his  own  view,  he  places  Cal- 
vary to  the  west  of  Jerusalem,  on  a  slight  elevation 
southeast  of  the  Birket  Mamilla. 

In  form  the  magnificent  folios  of  Pococke  (1738) 
are  much  more  pretentious  than  anything  that  came 
before  him.  Turning  over  the  pages  of  his  "De- 
scription of  the  East ' '  we  are  struck  by  the  wealth 
of  illustration  and  the  numerous  maps  and  plans. 
Close  inspection  brings  disappointment.  His  plan 
of  Jerusalem  and  its  environs  is  a  topographical  joke. 
Robinson,  without  much  exaggeration,  observes  that 
it  can  hardly  be  said  to  bear  the  slightest  resem- 

'  See  Monconys,  vol.  i,  p.  336. 

^  Apart  from  his  valiial)le  observations  on  antiquities,  physical 
geography,  and  natural  history,  noticed  sufficiently  before,  little  is 
added  to  our  subject  by  Thomas  Shaw,  who  travelled  in  Palestine 
in  1722,  and  later  became  Professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford. 

^  Jonas  Kortens,  ehemaligen  Biichhandlers  zu  Altona,  Reise  nach 
deni  gclobten  Lanile,  Aegypten,  Syrien  med  Mesopotamieu,  Altona,' 
1741,  etc. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  169 

blance  to  its  original.  The  professed  copies  of  the 
Sinaitic  inscriptions  are  equally  misleading.  But 
the  letter-press  contains  much  of  value.  Richard 
Pococke  (who  died  in  1765  as  Bishop  of  Meath)  was  a 
scholar,  though  his  learning  was  along  classical  rather 
than  along  Biblical  Hues.  Still,  in  matters  of  Biblical 
Identification  he  attempts  with  considerable  success 
to  break  the  bonds  of  ecclesiastical  tradition.  He 
denies  that  the  Vale  of  Elah  is  identical  with  the 
Wady  Beit  Hanina  near  Jerusalem,  on  the  ground 
that  the  Bible  places  it  between  Shocoh  and  Azekah, 
which  he  rightly  says  must  have  been  farther  west.  ^ 
Dothan,  he  observes,  could  not  have  been  at  the 
Crusading  site  north  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  but  was 
probably  somewhere  near  Shechem.^  He  refuses 
to  locate  Shiloh  at  Neby  Samwil,  placing  it  on  his  map 
ten  miles  south  of  Shechem,  very  near  the  true  site  of 
Seilun.3  He  discusses  the  merits  of  the  rival  Canas,* 
and  correctly  identifies  Gibeon  with  ej-Jib,^Dor  with 
Tantiira.6  The  rock-cut  channel  which  connects  the 
Pool  of  Siloam  with  the  Virgin's  Fountain  he  wrongly 
supposes  on  hearsay  to  lead  down  into  the  Pool  from 
the  Temple.  "^     And  yet  he  almost  hits  the  truth  in  his 

•  Vol.  ii,  p.  47.  '  Vol.  ii,  p.  77.  '  Vol.  ii,  p.  50. 

*  Vol.  ii,  p.  66.  '  Vol.  ii,  p.  49.  '  Vol.  ii,  p.  57. 

'  Vol.  ii,  p.  24.  Pococke  shows  considerable  confusion  in  regard 
to  this  district.  He  places  conjectnrally  the  Pool  of  Betliesda  at  the 
site  usually  regarded  as  the  Pool  of  Siloam.  The  true  Pool  of 
Siloam  he  suggests  may  be  the  Lower  Pool.  Water  once  flowed 
into  it,  he  says,  from  the  Fountain  of  Siloam,  which  he  identifies 
with  tlie  Virgin's  Well.  The  true  course  of  the  Siloam  Tunnel  he 
does  not  know.  How  then  does  he  suppose  that  tlie  water  flowed 
from  the  Virgin's  Well  to  the  Old  Pool  ?  Tlie  levels  are  airiiinst 
this  connection  being  through  the  Valley.  We  are  led  to  conclude 
that  hearsay  was  responsible  for  most  of  liis  stateiiieiits. 


170  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

suggestion  that  the  water  from  the  Virgin's  Fountain 
"was  carried  in  under  the  city  by  channels  leading  to 
certain  reservoirs  from  which  they  might  draw  up  the 
water. ' '  Such  a  passage  leading  off  from  the  Siloam 
Tunnel  under  the  hill  of  Ophel  was  found  by  Sir 
Charles  Warren.  ^  These  examples  will  serve  to 
show  the  trend  of  inquiry  at  this  period  when  the 
subject  of  identification  was  opened  up  anew  without 
being  pursued  with  much  minute  investigation. 
Scepticism  had  taken  the  place  of  blind  subservience 
to  tradition,  but  it  had  not  as  yet  been  accompanied 
by  positive  reconstruction.  Pococke,  as  we  have 
just  seen,  will  not  accept  the  Crusading  Vale  of 
Elah,  neither  will  he  take  the  trouble  to  ride  in 
search  of  the  right  site  in  the  region  west  of  Jerusa- 
lem where  he  supposes  it  generally  to  lie. 

Between  March  10,  1738,  when  Pococke  embarked 
at  Damietta  for  Joppa,  and  October  25th  of  the 
same  year,  when  he  set  sail  from  Tripoli  for  Cyprus, 
he  had  travelled  very  extensively  over  Palestine  and 
Syria.  He  had  carefully  explored  the  coast  from 
Csesarea  to  Latakia,  a  distance  of  some  250  miles. 
He  had  taken  some  unusual  routes  in  Galilee,  such 
as  following  the  Jordan  from  the  waters  of  Merom 
to  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  He  had  crossed  the  Leb- 
anon to  Baalbec,  proceeding  thence  to  Damascus. 
During  his  stay  at  this  place  he  took  several  ex- 
cursions, one  a  day's  journey  to  the  south  on  the 
Jerusalem  road;  one  to  the  northeast,  visiting 
Ma'lula,  where,  strange  to  say,  he  ignores  its  chief 
point  of  interest,  namely,  the  survival  of  the  Ara- 

'  Recovery  of  Jfnisaleni,  pp.  194  fif. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  171 

maic  as  a  living  dialect ;  and  a  third  to  the  temple  of 
Fijeh  above  the  secondary  source  of  the  Barada. 
Leaving  Damascus  he  proceeded  north  to  Aleppo, 
visiting  Hums,  Hama,  Ma'arrah.  From  Aleppo  he 
struck  eastward  to  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  On 
his  journey  down  the  Syrian  coast  he  crossed  over 
to  the  Island  of  Ruad,  a  spot  unvisited  by  Maun- 
drell,  and  probably  also  by  Shaw,  whose  style  of 
description  leaves  uncertain  just  what  places  he  per- 
sonally examined.  To  his  observations  relating  to 
the  antiquities  of  the  Syrian  coast  Renan  pays  the 
compliment  of  frequent  quotation.  Among  impor- 
tant omissions  we  note  that  he  failed  to  explore  Phi- 
listia,  Western  Judea,  and  Eastern  Samaria.  Sinai 
was  visited  the  next  year,  but  is  described  in  the 
first  volume  dealing  with  Egypt. 

The  work  of  the  next  distinguished  traveller,  the 
botanist  Hasselquist  (1749-53),  has  already  been 
sufficiently  noticed  in  our  review  of  the  researches 
in  Natural  History.  The  Abbe  Mariti  ^  should  be 
mentioned  for  his  excellent  portrayal  of  native  life. 
Carsten  Niebuhr  (1766)  is  called  by  Robinson  "  the 
Prince  of  Oriental  travellers;  exact,  judicious,  and 
persevering."  Unfortunately  for  our  subject,  his 
Principality  lay  in  Arabia,  the  treasures  of  which 
he  freely  exhibits.  His  visit  to  the  Holy  Land  was 
brief  and  hurried,  and  the  observations  there  made 
are  very  general  in  character.  His  plans  of  some  of 
the  towns  through  which  he  passed  are  merely  rude 

'  Viaggi  per  I'lsola  die  Cipro  e  per  la  Soria  e  I'alostina  fatti  da 
Giovanni  Mariti  Fiorentino  dall'anno  17(50  al  1768,  Lucca  17G9-7G, 
etc.     Often  translated. 


172  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

sketches,  i  Our  review  of  eighteenth  century  explor- 
ers closes  with  the  name  of  Volney  (1783-85),  who, 
without  intruding  an  account  of  his  own  personal 
adventures,  presents  in  a  series  of  essays  a  well- 
arranged  mass  of  new  and  instructive  detail,  especially 
in  regard  to  the  Lebanon. 

Dr.  Edward  Daniel  Clarke,  who  passed  only  seven- 
teen days  in  Palestine  in  1801,  demands  our  atten- 
tion as  the  prototype  of  some  later  Anglo-Saxon 
Protestants,  who,  determining  not  ' '  to  peer  through 
the  spectacles  of  priests,"  in  their  reaction  against 
traditional  "holy  places,"  have  hastily  picked  out 
rival  sites  and  have  supported  these  by  argumenta- 
tion, at  once  hazy  and  audacious.  ^  Clarke  regards 
it  to  be  probable  that  the  Hill  of  Evil  Counsel, 
separated  from  the  traditional  Zion  by  the  deep 
Wady-er-Rababeh  identified  by  him  conjecturally 
with  the  Tyropoeon,  may  be  the  true  Zion.  ^  ' '  Ruined 
walls  and  the  remains  of  sumptuous  edifices "(!) 
appear  to  him  to  show  that  the  summit  was  once 
within  the  city  walls.  The  tombs  on  its  slopes  may 
include  the  Royal  Sepulchres.  Another  rock-chamber 
may  be  the  tomb  of  Christ.  As  he  has  stated  that 
this  tomb  was  clearly  without  the  city,  one  won- 
ders in  what  convenient  line  he  would  draw  the  wall 
from  the  Temple  to  this  hill,  at  once  to  include  its 

'  C.  Niebuhr's  licisobescliroibung  nach  Arabion  und  andern  uni- 
liegt'nden  Ijiindon.  Bd.  I  and  II,  Copt'iibagcn,  1774-7S.  Bd.  Ill, 
Hamburg,  1837.  It  is  tbis  last  volume  tbat  contains  tbe  account  of 
tlie  Palestine  trip. 

■  Travels  in  Various  Countries  of  Europe.  Asia,  and  Africa,  by 
Edward  Daniel  Clarke,  LL.IX,  Cambridge,  Is  10-23. 

^  Part  II,  Sec.  I,  cbaps.  xvi.  and  xvii. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  173 

summit  and  to  exclude  this  particular  tomb.  One 
is  further  tempted  to  wonder  whether  his  theories 
were  anything  more  serious  than  the  outcome  of  his 
enthusiasm  in  exploiting  his  supposed  ' '  discoveries. ' ' 
Clarke  describes  with  much  exaggeration  monu- 
ments that  several  travellers  had  mentioned  before. 
While  he  concedes  that  Sandys  may  have  alluded  to 
these  tombs  in  his  brief  notice  of  "divers  sepul- 
chres ' '  in  the  Wady-er-Rababeh,  he  is  ignorant  of 
the  references  in  Fabri,  Maundrell,  and  Pococke. 
We  must  credit  this  enthusiasm,  however,  with  one 
good  result:  he  was  the  first  to  make  a  copy  of  the 
inscriptions.  Clarke's  absurd  theory  in  regard  to 
Zion  gained  no  lasting  support.  Would  that  those 
following  his  fanciful  methods  in  the  matter  of 
identification  had  done  as  little  mischief  ! 

It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  earlier  decades 
of  the  nineteenth  century  were  signalized  by  the  ex- 
ploration of  Eastern  and  Southern  Palestine.  On 
April  9,  1807,  the  pioneer  explorer  of  these  districts 
affixed  on  the  wall  of  a  chamber  in  the  convent  at 
Mt.  Sinai  a  paper  inscribed  (in  French)  to  this  effect : 
"U.  J.  Seetzen,  called  Mousa,  a  German  travel- 
ler, M.D.  and  recorder  (Assesseur)  of  the  College 
of  H.  M.  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias  in  the 
Seigneurie  of  Jever  in  Germany,  came  to  visit  the 
Convent  of  St.  Catherine,  the  Mountains  of  Horeb, 
Moses  and  St.  Catherine,  etc. ;  after  having  trav- 
ersed all  the  ancient  Eastern  provinces  of  Palestine, 
namely:  Batanea,  Decapolis,  Gileaditis,  Ammonitis, 
Amorrhitis,  and  Moabitis,  as  far  as  the  frontiers  of 
Gebelene  (Idumea)  and  after  having  twice  made  the 


174  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

tour  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  having  crossed  the  desert 
of  Arabia  Petrsea,  between  the  town  of  Hebron  and 
Mt.  Sinai,  after  a  sojourn  of  ten  days  he  continued 
his  journey  to  the  town  of  Suez. ' '  i  What  a  cata- 
logue of  previously  unexplored  sites  is  this!  But 
Seetzen  did  not  confine  himself  to  unexplored  dis- 
tricts. Leaving  Aleppo  in  April,  1805,  after  a  so- 
journ of  over  a  year,  spent  in  mastering  the  Arabic 
language,  he  trod  in  Southern  Syria  and  Western 
Palestine  all  the  familiar  paths,  from  which,  how- 
ever, he  frequently  diverged.  Every  department  of 
knowledge  interested  this  indefatigable  traveller :  he 
collected  lists  of  the  names  of  villages  which  he 
could  not  visit;  he  tabulated  all  the  little  streams 
about  Kerak;  he  copied  some  150  Greek  inscriptions; 
he  made  a  list  of  Arab  race-horses ;  he  paid  careful 
attention  to  the  mineralogy,  zoology,  and  botany. 
But  he  did  not  live  to  put  the  result  of  his  painstak- 
ing and  judicious  researches  into  book  form.  In 
1811  he  died,  the  victim  to  poison,  in  Arabia.  More 
than  fifty  years  later  his  journals,  comprising  his 
daily  jottings  up  to  his  arrival  in  Egypt,  were  pub- 
lished in  Berlin.  Those  who  wish  to  follow  Seetzen 's 
well-considered  conclusions,  as  well  as  the  tale  of 
his  wanderings,  may  compare  these  journals  with 
his  letters  previously  published  in  Zach's  Monatliche 
Correspondenz.  Seetzen  illustrated  the  advantage 
held  by  an  explorer  who  is  a  doctor  as  well.  In  his 
true  character  of  a  Christian  physician  in  the  Holy 
Land,  ne   allayed  the  Bedawin's   suspicion   of  his 

'  This  paper  was  soon  by  Burckhardt ;   see  his  Travels  in  Syria 
and  the  Holy  Land,  p    553. 


FROM  FABRI   TO  ROBINSON  175 

paper  and  pencil  by  collecting  herbs  and  curious 
stones.  In  the  Hedjaz  he  passed  as  a  Moslem 
doctor. 

The  travels  of  'Ali  Bey  el  'Abbassi  in  Syria  and 
Palestine,  in  1807,  ^  have  a  certain  curious  interest 
that  does  not  centre  in  his  observations  on  antiqui- 
ties, which  are  meagre,  nor  his  account  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  land  at  his  time,  which,  though  full,  is 
sometimes  superficial.  Many  tourists  have  travelled 
in  disguise,  but  his  is  the  only  case  known  to  me  of 
a  traveller  who  preserves  his  disguise  in  his  book. 
For  four  years  continuously  the  Spanish  Christian 
Badia  y  Leblich,  with  the  purpose  of  founding  a 
European  colony  in  Morocco,  passed  himself  off  as 
a  Moslem,  deceiving  alike  the  Frenchman  Chateau- 
briand, whom  he  met  at  Alexandria,  and  the  Emperor 
of  Morocco,  whom  he  visited  on  his  native  soil.  His 
book  gives  no  hint  of  his  real  origin.  His  observa- 
tions on  the  Turks  conclude  with  this  sentence: 
"Therefore  though  a  Mussulman  myself,  I  must 
own  that  the  Turks  are  still  barbarians."  ^  In  the 
guise  of  a  Moslem  he  journeyed  to  Mecca,  where  he 
escaped  the  vigilance  of  the  official  poisoner.  In  the 
guise  of  a  Moslem  he  entered  the  Mosque  at  Hebron, 
where  he  was  shown  the  cenotaphs  of  the  Patriarchs, 
though  he  did  not  seem  to  be  aware  of  the  real  tombs 
in  the  cave  below.  He  was  welcomed  also  in  the 
Mosque  of  Omar  in  Jerusalem,  closed  to  all  but  the 

'  The  Travels  of  'Ali  Bey  el  'Ahbassi  in  Morocco,  Tripoli,  Cy- 
prus, Egypt,  Syria,  and  Turkey  between  the  yeara  1803  and  1807. 
London  and  Philadelphia,  1816. 

^  Vol.  ii,  p.  411. 


176  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

followers  of  Mohammed,  and  took  measurements  of 
the  interior.  ^  Two  old  men  lying  in  wait  for  black- 
mail between  Ramleh  and  Jerusalem,  noting  that  his 
burnoose  was  of  blue,  a  color  worn  by  Christians 
only,  seized  his  bridle,  shouting :  ' '  Thou  art  a  Chris- 
tian ; ' '  nor  were  they  satisfied  till  the  rider  declared 
that  he  had  just  performed  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
repeating  as  proof  the  Mohammedan  faith.  2  On  his 
return  by  the  same  road,  some  days  later,  the  same 
two  old  men  received  him  with  extravagant  signs  of 
penitence,  weeping  and  kissing  his  feet.  They  had 
meanwhile  been  told  that  the  traveller  whom  they 
had  insulted  was  no  less  than  the  son  of  the  Emperor 
of  Morocco.  "  'Ali  Bey  "  is  supposed  to  have  died 
while  on  a  second  journey  toward  Mecca  in  1810, 
and  to  have  been  buried  at  the  Castle  of  Belka,  on 
the  Haj  route. 

The  work  of  the  celebrated  Frenchman  Chateau- 
briand (1806-7)  3  anticipates  that  of  his  fellow- 
countryman  Lamartine  (1832-33)  ^  by  his  brilliant 
and  poetic  style,  as  well  as  by  his  inaccuracy.  To 
Chateaubriand,  however,  we  are  indebted  for  his 
description  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  be- 
fore the  great  damage  it  received  two  years  after 
his  visit.  To  him  also  are  indebted  the  dogmatists 
holding  to  the  authenticity  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
for   what   Robinson   calls  "the   clearest  and  most 

'  Vol.  ii,  p.  215.  -  Vol.  ii,  p.  242. 

'  Itinerairc  do  Paris  a  Jerusalem,  etc.,  Paris,  1811,  etc.,  etc.,  also 
in  many  translations. 

■*  Souvenirs,  Impressions,  et  Paysages,  pendant  un  voyapre  on 
Orient,  etc.,  par  Alplionse  do  Lamartine.  Pari.s,  1835.  Often.  tra,n.s- 
lated. 


FROM  FABRI   TO  ROBINSOX  177 

plausible  statement  of  the  historic  testimony  and 
probabilities  which  may  be  supposed  to  have  had  an 
influence  in  determining  the  spot. "  ^  "  Eloquent 
and  superficial;  "  thus  curtly  Robinson  dismisses 
Chateaubriand  in  his  bibliography.  Lamartine  he 
does  not  notice.  Robinson's  interest  is  confined  to 
scientific  merits.  But  there  is  another  side  to  the 
question.  A  painted  landscape  may  be  correct  in 
broad  outlines  as  well  as  in  its  smallest  details,  but 
there  will  be  no  picture  if  atmosphere  is  wanting. 
Atmosphere  is  the  contribution  made  to  our  subject 
by  Chateaubriand  and  Lamartine,  lending  to  their 
descriptions  a  general  light  of  truth  not  always  par- 
alleled by  their  details.  Von  Schubert,  who  travelled 
in  1836-37  as  a  spacialist  in  natural  history,  and 
who  was  a  serious  scholar  in  general,  improves  upon 
these  writers  by  illuminating  his  more  correct  de- 
tails with  an  equally  true  atmosphere.  2  It  was  left 
to  George  Adam  Smith,  the  successor  of  von  Schu- 
bert by  half  a  century,  to  flood  his  broad  outlines 
with  a  light  that  throws  into  proper  perspective 
every  minute  feature  accurately  painted  on  his  stu- 
pendous canvas.  3 

But  we  must  return  to  the  earlier  decades  of  the 
century.  The  travels  of  Johannes  Ludwig  Burck- 
hardt  in  the  Holy  Land  were  in  intention  only  a 
preparation  for  the  exploration  of  a  country  far  less 
known.  In  1809  the  English  "Association  for 
promoting  the  discovery   of  the    Interior  parts   of 

•Rob.  Res.,  i,  p   411. 

'  Rpiso   in  das  Morgonland    in  don  .Tahron    18.^fi  uml    1837  von 
Dr.  rjotthilf  Hcinrcich  von  Scluilit-rt.     Erlan','('n,  I8;JH-39. 
'  Historical  (;('ograi)!iy  of  tlic  Holy  Land,  1894. 


178  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

Africa ' '  sent  this  Swiss  explorer  to  Aleppo  ' '  to 
acquire  the  language  and  manners  of  an  Arabian 
Mussulman  in  such  a  degree  of  perfection  as  should 
render  the  detection  of  his  real  character  extremely 
difficult. ' '  To  this  same  end  he  was  instructed  to 
make  occasional  tours  in  the  parts  of  Syria  least  fre- 
quented by  European  travellers.  The  main  object 
of  his  mission  was  defeated  by  his  death  at  Cairo  in 
1817,  at  the  moment  when  he  was  preparing  for 
immediate  departure  for  Fezzan.  However,  his 
journals,  published  posthumously,  afford  important 
information  in  regard  to  Egypt,  Nubia,  Arabia,  Mt. 
Sinai,  and  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
Holy  Land.  It  is  with  these  last-mentioned  districts 
that  we  are  here  concerned. 

How  thorough  a  preparation  he  made  for  the  mis- 
sion which  he  was  destined  never  to  accomplish  is 
illustrated  by  almost  every  page  of  his  journals. 
On  the  one  hand,  he  shrank  from  no  necessary 
privation  or  suffering;  on  the  other,  he  allowed  no 
legitimate  curiosity  to  interfere  with  his  future 
plans.  On  his  first  tour  in  the  Hauran  he  reluct- 
antly but  deliberately  gave  up  a  visit  to  Draa  be- 
cause he  could  get  no  guide,  following  his  constant 
rule  not  to  expose  himself  at  any  hazard,  "well 
knowing,"  to  quote  his  words,  "  that  this  was  not 
the  place  where  duty  and  honour  obhged  me  to  do 
so;  on  the  contrary,  I  felt  that  I  should  not  be  jus- 
tified in  risking  my  life  in  this  quarter,  destined  as 
I  am  to  other  and  it  is  hoped  more  important  pur- 
suits." ^     A    visit  to  the  attractive  site    of  Bozra 

•  Burckliardt,  p.  109. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  179 

was  also  omitted  from  this  tour — though  the  loss 
was  made  good  later,  under  other  conditions — not 
because  the  route  was  dangerous,  but  because  he 
feared  to  meet  in  the  garrison  Moggrebyn  soldiers, 
who,  as  they  often  passed  from  one  service  to  an- 
other, might  later  recognize  him  in  Egypt.  ^  He  sat- 
isfied the  wonder  of  his  guards  at  this  omission  by 
declaring  that  he  had  been  warned  of  God  in  a  dream 
not  to  visit  Bozra.  Indeed,  his  fertility  of  resource 
was  boundless.  In  his  wanderings  he  wore  the  na- 
tive dress,  now  passing  for  a  manufacturer  of  gun- 
powder, now  as  a  lay  brother  sent  by  the  Greek 
Patriarch  of  Damascus,  now,  like  Seetzen,  as  a 
physician  in  quest  of  herbs.  His  discovery  of  the 
long-lost  and  hitherto  inaccessible  Petra  was  due  to 
his  declaring  to  the  Bedawin  that  he  had  vowed  to 
slaughter  a  goat  in  honor  of  Aaron,  whose  alleged 
tomb  is  on  Mt.  Hor  near  Wady-Musa.  This  sacri- 
fice he  actually  offered  with  one  eye  gazing  up  at 
the  tomb  and  the  other  making  scientific  observa- 
tions, while  his  guide  exclaimed:  "  0  Haroun!  look 
upon  us !  it  is  for  you  we  slaughter  this  victim !  0 
Haroun!  protect  us  and  forgive  us!  0  Haroun!  be 
content  with  our  good  intentions,  for  it  is  but  a  lean 
goat !  0  Haroun !  smooth  our  paths  and  praise  be  to 
the  Lord  of  all  creatures !  "  2 

The  principal  geographical  discoveries  of  Burck- 
hardt  are  summed  up  by  his  editor  as  follows  i^  "  The 
nature  of  tlie  country  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  the 
Gulf  of  Aelana,  now  Akaba;  the  extent,  conforma- 
tion, and  detailed  topogra])hy  of  the  Haouran;  the 

'  V.  104.  =  Vy.  4;iO-.'51.  ^  See  preface,  P.  V. 


180  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

site  of  Apameia  on  the  Orontes  .  .  .  the  site  of 
Petra  .  .  .  and  the  general  structure  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Mt.  Sinai,  together  with  many  new  facts  in 
its  geography."  The  innate  justice  of  the  man  is 
shown  by  his  giving  credit,  wherever  it  is  due,  to 
his  predecessor,  Seetzen.  And  he  is  as  modest  as 
he  is  just.  He  makes  no  boast  of  his  discovery  of 
the  site  of  Petra,  which  Seetzen  inquired  for  in  vain. 
He  is  content  merely  to  suggest  its  identification 
with  the  rock-cut  city  in  the  Wady-Musa,  proposing 
to  leave  the  discussion  to  Greek  scholars,  ^  He  apolo- 
gizes for  the  incompleteness  of  his  notes  here,  due 
to  the  enforced  brevity  of  his  visit.  We  may  add 
that  his  observations  were  supplemented  in  1828  by 
the  splendid  plates  accompanying  the  work  of  La- 
borde  and  Linant. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Burckhardt's  plans  pre- 
vented his  including  Western  Palestine  in  the  field 
of  his  acute  observation.  His  determination  to 
avoid  well-known  routes  kept  him  away  from  Jeru- 
salem and  the  rest  of  Judea,  from  Samaria,  Southern 
Phoenicia,  Philistia,  and  most  of  Galilee.  At  Naza- 
reth and  the  Sea  of  Galilee  alone  did  he  touch  im- 
portant places  in  Western  Palestine  proper. 

In  striking  contrast  to  the  modest  record  of  Burck- 
hardt  are  the  volumes  of  J.  S.  Buckingham. ^     "I 

>  P.  431. 

'  Travels  in  Palestine  through  the  countries  of  Bashan  and  Gilead, 
etc.,  London,  1821.  See  also  Travels  among  the  .Arab  tribes  in- 
habiting the  countries  east  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  including  a  jour- 
ney from  Nazareth  to  the  mountains  beyond  the  Dead  Sea,  and 
from  thence  through  the  plains  of  tlie  Hauran  to  Bozra,  Damascus, 
Tripoli,  etc.,  and  by  the  Valley  of  the  (.)ronte8  to  Seleucia,  .Antioch, 
and  Alepito.     London,  1825. 


FROM  FABRI  TO  ROBINSON  181 

crossed  the  country, "  he  boasts  in  his  preface,  '*  in  a 
greater  number  and  variety  of  directions  than  has 
ever  been  done  by  any  individual  traveller  before,  as 
far  as  I  am  aware  of. ' '  He  affirms  that  his  travels 
in  Bashan  and  Gilead  may  be  termed  ' '  entirely  new, ' ' 
as  the  discoveries  of  Burckhardt  and  Seetzen  ' '  were 
scarcely  known  even  by  name. ' '  Had  he  taken  the 
trouble  to  find  out  where  Seetzen  went,  he  would  not 
,have  made  his  first  statement.  This  boastfulness 
brought  down  upon  him  the  critics  who  accused  him 
of  appropriating  part  of  the  honors  due  to  Burck- 
hardt's  discoveries.  In  point  of  fact,  he  was  greatly 
Burckhardt 's  inferior  in  the  matter  of  sober,  scien- 
tific observation.  If  his  accounts  of  places  are 
stripped  of  the  attempted  historical  discussions,  his 
material  often  appears  meagre  enough.  However, 
the  description  of  Gerasa  and  Gamala  are  very  full. 
Ritter,  after  recognizing  his  faults,  gives  him  the 
credit  for  having  secured  by  his  ' '  careful  examina- 
tion of  angles,  distances,  levels,  and  the  like, ' '  very 
important  data  that  enabled  Berghaus  to  complete 
his  great  map. 

Charles  Leonard  Irby  and  James  Mangles,  com- 
manders in  the  Royal  Navy,  impelled  at  first  by  cu- 
riosity and  then  by  an  increasing  admiration  of  an- 
tiquities, spent  nine  months  in  Syria  and  Palestine, 
in  1817-18,  following  the  usual  tourist  paths  and 
also  taking  new  routes,  especially  to  the  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  They  were  prompted  to  make  an  excur- 
sion into  this  region  by  the  chance  to  accompany  Mr. 
William  John  Bankes,  whose  zest  for  travel  had 
already  led  him  to  explore  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and 


182  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

Egypt.  Dr.  Thomas  Legh  was  also  one  of  the  party. 
The  brief  but  accurate  observations  of  Irby  and  Man- 
gles touching  very  divers  points  of  interest  are  found 
in  their  letters,  published  at  first  for  private  and 
later  for  public  circulation.  ^  Legh's  notes  on  the 
adventures  of  the  party  and  on  the  habits  of  the 
Arabs  were  also  given  to  the  world.  2  But  Bankes, 
"whose  zeal  [so  writes  Legh],  intelligence,  and  un- 
wearied assiduity  in  copying  inscriptions,  delineat- 
ing remains  of  antiquity,  and  ascertaining  points  of 
curious  classical  research  [at  Petra]  cannot  be  sur- 
passed ' ' — Bankes  published  nothing  in  regard  to  the 
Holy  Land,  not  even  an  account  of  this  most  impor- 
tant trip,  and  thereby  occupies  a  unique  place  among 
explorers.  When  we  remember  how  the  story  of 
Palestine  exploration — especially  in  its  later  chapters 
— abounds  in  the  names  of  those  whose  haste  to  rush 
into  print  is  motived  by  an  anxiety  to  proclaim  a 
supposed  priority  in  visiting  a  given  locality,  it  is  re- 
freshing to  find  a  man  who  enjoyed  exploration  purely 
for  its  own  sake,  however  much  we  may  regret  that 
he  remained,  to  use  Ritter's  phrase,  "stubbornly  ret- 
icent." It  is  also  agreeable  to  notice  the  pleasant 
mutual  relations  of  this  little  party,  comi)osed  of 
three  distinct  elements.     Perhaps  their  most  inter- 

»  Travels  through  Nubia,  Palestine,  and  Syria  in  1817  and  1818. 
London,  1823.  (Printed  for  private  distribution.)  In  1844  Murray 
published  the  work  under  tlie  title  Travels  in  Egypt  and  Nubia, 
Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,  including  a  journey  toward  the  Dead 
Sea,  etc. 

^  First  published  in  William  MacMichael's  A  .Tourney  from 
Moscow  to  Constantino])le,  etc.,  under  title  Excursion  from  Jeru- 
salem to  Wady-Musa.  See  also  Biblical  Kepository,  October,  1833, 
pp.  613  ff. 


FHOM  FABRt  TO  ROBINSON  183 

esting  discovery  was  that  of  the  ruins  of  'Arak-el- 
Emir,  which  Bankes  suggested  might  be  the  Castle 
of  Hyrcanus,  son  of  Joseph  (erected  circa  183  B.C.) 
— an  identification  now  generally  adopted. 

Laborde,  delineator  of  Petra,  and  explorer  of  the 
Hauran  (1828) ;  Lamartine,  the  brilliant  impres- 
sionist (1832-33) ;  Riissegger,  the  pioneer  geologist 
(1836-38) ;  von  Schubert,  poet  by  nature,  scholar 
by  training  (1837) — these  names,  already  noticed, 
bring  our  chronological  survey  of  explorers  down 
to  Robinson.  But  in  closing  this  lecture  we  should 
refer  to  the  account  of  a  rapid  journey  taken  in 
1834  by  the  Due  de  Raguse,  chiefly  valuable  for 
its  notices  regarding  the  political  condition  of  Syria 
and  Palestine,  while  Ibrahim  Pasha  was  still  com- 
pleting his  conquests.  ^  It  is  interesting  to  compare 
his  account  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  of  which 
he  says  not  a  five-hundredth  part  was  under  cul- 
tivation, with  its  condition  to-day,  where,  thanks 
both  to  Beyrout  capitalists  and  to  a  securer  state  of 
things,  the  April  traveller  from  Nazareth  to  Jenin 
may  rest  his  eye  on  fields  of  waving  corn  stretch- 
ing away  in  the  distance.  Villages,  he  notes,  were 
built  far  away  from  fountains,  the  inhabitants  pre- 
ferring  to  seek  water  at  a  distance  rather  than  to 
risk  the  danger  of  living  nearer  to  places  where  the 
wells  would  attract  strangers.  ^ 

'  Voyage  de  M.  le  Marecl\al  Due  de  Raguse  in   Ilongrie    .     .     . 
en  Syrii",  en  Palestine  et  en  Egypte.     Bruxelles,  1837. 
'  Ibid.,  vol.  iii,  pp.  22-23. 


LECTURE   V 

EDWARD   ROBINSON 

In  taking  up  the  work  of  Robinson,  it  is  impor- 
tant for  us  to  realize  what  stage  we  have  reached  in 
the  development  of  Palestine  Exploration.  He  stands 
at  the  focal  point  where  all  the  various  lines  con- 
verge. There  is  hardly  a  traveller  or  author  con- 
sidered in  the  previous  lectures  that  he  does  not 
quote,  there  are  few  places  mentioned — situated  to 
the  west  of  Jordan — that  he  does  not  visit,  there  is 
hardly  a  subject  treated  that  he  does  not  amplify  or 
at  least  touch  upon.  Finding  numberless  threads 
twisted  and  knotted,  he  smooths  them  out,  adds 
new  strands  of  his  own,  and  weaves  all  into  a  sym- 
metrical pattern. 

This  is  the  place,  then,  swiftly  to  recapitulate  the 
story  which,  with  some  detail,  we  have  been  consid- 
ering. Like  all  histories  of  development,  it  shows 
periods  of  stagnation  as  well  as  of  positive  retro- 
gression. Li  short,  it  mirrors  in  a  series  of  images 
the  Spirit  of  the  Ages.  We  have  seen  that  to  the 
early  Egyptians  and  Mesopotamians  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine had  little  interest  beyond  the  chance  they  gave 
for  conquest  or  for  trade.  We  have  seen  that  in  the 
day  of  Hebrew  supremacy  the  Holy  Land  was  of 
small  account  to  contemporary  Greeks,  whose  (^hief 
historian  (Herodotus)  refers  to  it  only  incidentally. 


EDWARD  ROBIIfSO^'  185 

We  have  traced  the  wider  diffusion  of  correct  knowl- 
edge following  the  Eastern  campaigns  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  In  the  first  century  before  and  the  two 
centuries  after  the  birth  of  Christ  we  have  found 
the  geography  of  Syria  and  Palestine  treated  by 
Greeks  and  Romans  with  the  best  science  of 
their  day.  Strabo,  Pliny,  and  Claudius  Ptolemy 
furnished  broad  outlines  filled  in  with  details  of  more 
or  less  accuracy.  In  the  Onomasticon  of  Eusebius 
and  Jerome,  who  were  domesticated  in  the  Holy 
Land  and  were  the  first  to  recognize  a  true  Biblical 
geography,  our  subject  reaches  a  lofty  point  not 
again  attained  for  many  centuries.  For  from  the 
Bordeaux  Pilgrim,  early  in  the  fourth  century,  to 
the  Monk  Bernard,  late  in  the  ninth,  Western  trav- 
ellers to  Palestine  were  impelled  by  no  other  motive 
than  worship.  The  pre-Crusading  pilgrims  cared 
more  for  the  marvels  associated  with  a  place  than 
for  the  way  leading  to  it,  or  for  a  strict  proof  of  its 
authenticity.  Purblind  children  of  the  Dark  Ages, 
they  knew  how  to  pray  fervently ;  see  clearly  they 
could  not.  Their  spiritual  descendants  have  never 
ceased  from  the  Holy  Land.  Year  by  year  from 
the  steppes  of  Russia  countless  hordes  of  them  flock 
thither. 

Not  much  improvement  is  found  during  the  cen- 
tury of  Latin  Kings.  Fetellus,  indeed,  collects  a 
large  quantity  of  place-names,  but  his  attempts  to 
locate  those  are  indefinite.  Theoderich  shows  the 
dawning  of  a  true  sense  of  topography  in  his  little 
picture  of  Judea  and  his  brief  description  of  the  en- 
virons of  Jerusalem.     William    of    Tyre    makes    a 


186  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

creditable  though  somewhat  jejune  attempt  to  view 
the  land  as  a  whole,  giving  divisions  and  boundaries. 
But  we  applaud  these  efforts  much  as  we  would  the 
superiority  shown  over  their  fellows  by  clever  High- 
school  boys.  Carrying  on  the  comparison  to  the 
thirteenth  century,  during  which  the  Franks  still 
had  a  foothold  in  the  land,  we  note  that  Jacques  de 
Vitry  deserves  honorable  mention  for  his  description 
of  the  various  Christian  sects;  and  Burchard  for  a 
more  systematic  arrangement  of  geographical  facts, 
for  his  improvement  upon  Theoderich's  Jerusalem 
topography,  and  for  his  tolerant  spirit  in  dealing 
with  Moslems  and  native  Christians,  better  under- 
stood by  him  than  by  Jacques  de  Vitry.  After  the 
final  expulsion  of  the  Franks,  we  find,  during  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  on  which  was 
breaking  the  dawn  of  the  Modern  World,  continued 
advance  along  the  same  Hues.  Marino  Sanuto's 
vast  work  repeats  indeed  the  false  identifications  of 
Burchard  and  his  predecessors,  but  he  exhibits  re- 
search in  other  quarters.  The  alleged  Mandeville 
shows  a  charity  born  of  his  world-wide  travels. 
Ludolph  von  Suchem  brightens  his  tale  of  the  oft- 
trodden  routes  by  picturesque  anecdotes  and  a  lively 
style.  Bertrandon  de  la  Brocquiere  anticipates  a 
modern  note  in  strongly  accentuating  his  personal 
adventures.  The  high-school  scholars  of  the  med- 
iaeval period  are  approaching  their  day  of  gradua- 
tion. 

In  striking  contrast  to  the  Western  visitors  are 
the  Moslem  geographers  from  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
to  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  centuries.     Mukaddasi 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  187 

(a.d.  985)  is  far  in  advance  of  Theoderich,  who  wrote 
about  two  centuries  later,  though  each  described  the 
land  as  held  by  his  own  race.  In  comparison  with 
Yakut's  magnificent  Geographical  Dictionary,  writ- 
ten in  1225,  the  History  of  his  contemporary,  Jacques 
de  Vitry,  is  indeed  paltry  stuff.  The  justification  for 
our  having  in  a  previous  lecture  passed  over  the 
Moslem  authors  so  cursorily  lies  in  our  conception  of 
Exploration  which  assumes  that  explorers  are  alien 
to  the  land  that  they  describe.  Such  indeed  were 
the  Crusaders  even  after  their  firm  establishment. 
Such  were  hardly  even  the  Persian  travellers,  any 
more  than  is  the  American  an  alien  who  visits  Eng- 
land. 

It  has  been  shown,  I  think,  that  Felix  Fabri 
(1483)  was  the  first  typical  modern  explorer,  as  far, 
at  least,  as  his  manner  of  treating  his  material  is  con- 
cerned. After  him  we  have  traced  a  gradual  widen- 
ing of  the  area  of  Exploration;  not  geographically, 
but  in  the  sense  of  its  including  more  subjects.  The 
hitherto  almost  neglected  department  of  archaeology 
begins  to  attract  Cotovicus  at  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Toward  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  it  comes  fairly  to  the  front  in  the 
works  of  De  la  Roque  and  Maundrell.  By  the  time 
of  Robinson  it  had  become  distinctly  specialized  in 
splendidly  illustrated  monographs  on  Petra  and  Baal- 
bec.  The  natural  history  of  the  country  is  brought 
into  prominence  by  Du  Mans  in  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  He  is  closely  followed  by  Rau- 
wolf.  the  pioneer  scientific  botanist  of  the  Holy 
Land.     At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century 


188  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

Shaw  gives  an  admirable  and  popular  account  of  its 
various  physical  aspects.  A  few  years  later  we  find 
Hasselquist,  the  pupil  of  Linnaeus,  making  collec- 
tions in  Natural  History.  In  Geology  we  have  the 
judicious  observations  of  Riissegger,  a  contemporary 
of  Robinson  himself. 

We  have  seen  that  in  geography,  and  especially  in 
the  art  of  Scriptural  Identification,  the  progress  in 
Western  Palestine  was  not  commensurate  with  that 
along  other  lines.  Notwithstanding  Pococke's  at- 
tempt to  break  with  the  false  Crusading  traditions, 
these  continued,  in  most  cases,  to  hold  sway,  even 
over  subsequent  travellers.  In  Eastern  Palestine, 
too,  exploration  cannot  properly  be  said  to  have  pro- 
gressed: before  the  researches  of  the  indefatigable 
Seetzen  it  can  hardly  be  said  even  to  have  begun. 
Hence  Seetzen  and  Burckhardt,  with  the  companions 
Irby  and  Mangles,  all  veritable  pioneers,  stand  out 
as  brilliant  exceptions  in  the  matter  of  geographical 
advance,  so  slight  in  the  case  of  other  travellers  be- 
fore Robinson.  We  have  noted  that  in  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  emphasis  began  to  be 
laid  upon  another  feature,  the  importance  of  which 
is  ignored  or  practically  denied  by  many  scientific  ex- 
plorers. Chateaubriand  and  Lamartine  will  long  be 
remembered  for  their  word-paintings  of  the  Holy 
Land,  rich  in  local  coloring. 

Robinson,  then,  found  the  main  highways  of 
Western  Palestine  well  trodden,  but  the  by-paths  lit- 
tle known.  1     False  identifications  of  Sacred  sites, 

1  One  concrete  example  will  suffice  to  illustrate  the  indefinite  nat- 
ure of  knowledge  regarding  Palestine  before  the  time  of  Robinson. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  189 

stereotyped  centuries  before,  still  persisted  in  ignor- 
ing the  correct  nomenclature  abundantly  preserved 
among  the  peasants  of  the  land.  To  explore  the 
obscure  as  well  as  to  re-examine  the  known  sites,  to 
determine  the  correct  Biblical  topography,  uninflu- 
enced by  ecclesiastical  tradition,  such  was  the  task 
to  which  he  set  himself. 

"The  time  had  come,"  to  quote  Dr.  Roswell  D. 
Hitchcock,  for  eight  years  Dr.  Robinson's  colleague 
in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  ' '  the  time  had 
come  for  a  scholar  equal  to  Reland  (whose  work  was 
not  based  on  personal  investigation  of  the  Holy 
Land)  in  acuteness  and  breadth  of  judgment,  to  enter 
this  tempting  field  with  thermometer,  telescope, 
compass,  and  measuring-tape,  but,  above  all,  sharp- 
eyed  and  sufficiently  sceptical,  and  then  make  report 
of  what  he  had  seen  and  measured.  Such  a  man 
was  our  late  associate,  raised  up,  endowed,  and  trained 
for  this  very  purpose ;  so  keen  of  vision  that  nothing 
escaped  his  notice;  so  sound  and  solid  of  judgment 
that  no  mere  fancy  could  sway  him ;  so  learned  that 
nothing  of  any  moment  pertaining  to  his  work  was 
unknown  to  him;  and  yet,  withal,  so  ardent  in  his 

Not  till  a  year  before  his  visit  was  one  of  the  most  salient  features 
of  the  land  suspected — namely,  the  deep  depression  of  the  Jordan 
Valley  and  of  the  Dead  Sea  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 
No  one  seems  to  have  thought  it  necessary  to  explain  the  extraor- 
dinary variations  from  the  rest  of  Palestine  in  its  flora  and  fauna. 
In  Ih;57  More  and  Beke  noticed  the  depression  by  means  of  tiie 
boiling  point  of  water,  estimating  it  to  be  about  500  feet.  Kiisseg- 
ger  and  Bertou  in  18.'{8  made  the  depression  to  amount  to  more 
than  l.'.iOO  Paris  feet.  Before  Kol)in.son's  second  visit  the  true  de- 
pres.sion — about  1,:!00  Knglish  feet— was  scientifically  ascertained 
by  liiiut   Lynch. 


190  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

religious  affections  as  to  pursue  his  task  like  a  new 
crusader.  There  never  was  a  man  better  suited  to 
his  calling." 

For  a  justification  of  this  unqualified  praise  of 
Robinson's  critical  faculty,  as  well  as  of  his  attain- 
ments, we  shall  presently  consider  his  Biblical  Re- 
searches ;  for  a  justification  of  the  statement  that  he 
was  * '  raised  up,  endowed,  and  trained  for  this  very 
purpose,"  we  may  first  turn  to  the  story  of  his  life 
as  told  by  Dr.  Hitchcock.  ^ 

Edward  Robinson  was  born  of  a  sturdy  New 
England  stock,  on  April  10,  1794,  at  Southing- 
ton,  Conn.  His  father,  like  most  of  the  Congre- 
gationalist  ministers  of  his  time,  supplemented  his 
slender  stipend  by  business.  Edward  found,  thus, 
in  his  farm-home,  the  intellectual  and  the  practical 
closely  linked.  Without  detriment  to  preaching  and 
pastoral  duties,  his  father  looked  after  herds  of  oxen, 
hives  of  bees,  saw-mill,  and  grist-mill.  The  lad  was 
not  strong  enough  to  help  his  father  in  the  more  la- 
borious work  of  the  farm,  but  he  became  an  expert 
weaver,  and  invented  many  contrivances  for  facili- 
tating manual  labor.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was 
placed  by  his  father,  who  had  no  idea  of  sending  him 
to  college,  as  apprentice  in  a  store,  with  especial 
charge  of  the  drug  department.  Previously  to  this 
time  he  had  passed  through  the  common  schools, 
had  received  private  instruction  from  a  neighboring 

^The  Life,  Writings,  and  Character  of  Edward  Robinson,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  read  before  the  New  York  Historical  Society  by  Henry  B. 
Smith,  D.l).,  and  Roswell  D.  Hitclicock,  D.U.  New  York:  A. 
D.  F.  Kandolph,  18G3. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  191 

clergyman,  and  had  actually  taught  school  himself. 
A  passion  for  learning,  thus  fostered,  caused  him  to 
rebel  against  a  commercial  career,  and  after  two 
years  in  the  store  he  got  his  father's  permission  to 
enter  the  first  Freshman  class  at  Hamilton  College. 

In  this  new  institution,  situated  at  Clinton,  N.  Y,, 
' '  on  the  verge  of  the  wilderness  and  almost  within 
sight  of  the  wigwams  of  the  Oneidas, ' '  Robinson  had 
a  foretaste  of  the  great  Eastern  solitudes  through 
which  he  was  destined  to  pass  in  later  years.  Tow- 
ard these  solitudes  his  thoughts  were  turned  very 
early  and  turned  continuously.  The  love  of  Pales- 
tine had  fired  the  dreams  of  his  boyhood;  and,  to 
quote  from  a  sentence  in  the  Introductory  Section  to 
his  Researches  ' '  the  journey  had  been  the  object  of 
my  ardent  wishes  and  had  entered  into  my  plans  of 
life  for  more  than  fifteen  years. ' '  But  his  specializ- 
ing interest  in  Biblical  Studies  did  not  show  itself  at 
once.  After  graduation,  he  first  entered  a  law  office, 
and  later  became  tutor  at  Hamilton  in  Greek  and 
Mathematics.  His  marriage,  in  1818,  with  Miss 
Eliza  Kirkland,  who  had  inherited  a  large  farm  from 
her  father,  again  brought  into  his  life  the  daily  union 
of  business  and  study,  the  best  possible  preparation 
for  an  explorer,  the  range  of  whose  notes  must  often 
bear  a  close  relation  to  the  management  of  the  com- 
missariat. For  four  years  Mr.  Robinson  divided  his 
time  between  editing  a  part  of  the  Iliad  and  super- 
intendence of  the  farm.  This  was  left  to  him  by  his 
wife,  who  died  within  a  year  of  their  marriage. 

In  1821  ho  moved  to  Andover,  Mass.,  for  the 
purpose  of  publishing  his  book.     Here,   under  the 


192  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

influence  of  Professor  Moses  Stuart,  the  Hebraist,  his 
studies  took  a  new  turn,  pointing  more  directly  to 
the  work  by  which  he  is  most  widely  known.  With- 
in two  years  he  was  appointed  Instructor  of  Hebrew 
in  the  Theological  Seminary.  At  about  this  time 
he  was  licensed  to  preach,  but  he  was  not  regularly 
ordained  till  he  went  to  New  York  as  professor  at 
Union.  Resigning  his  tutorship  after  three  years, 
occupancy,  he  sailed  for  Europe,  where  his  studies 
brought  him  into  close  personal  contact  with  such 
men  as  Gesenius,  Tholuck,  and  Neander.  At  Halle 
he  married  Therese  Albertine  Luise,  daughter  of  a 
professor  in  the  University,  and  herself  a  writer  of 
distinction.  Shortly  after  his  return  from  Europe 
he  was  appointed  Professor  Extraordinary  of  Sacred 
Literature  at  Andover,  without  salary.  While  occu- 
pying the  chair — which  he  was  obliged  to  resign  in 
1833  on  account  jf  ill-health — he  founded  the  Biblical 
Repository,  which,  under  his  editorship,  to  quote  Dr. 
Hitchcock,  ' '  had  almost  oracular  authority  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic."  Relieved  of  his  professorial 
duties,  he  passed  in  Boston  four  years  of  uninter- 
rupted study,  the  chief  results  of  which  were  his 
equally  famous  translation  of  Gesenius 's  Hebrew  Lexi- 
con and  his  own  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  of  the 
New  Testament.  A  call  to  the  professorship  of  Bib- 
lical Literature  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary 
was  accepted  under  one  condition :  he  desired  before 
entering  on  his  duties  to  carry  out  his  intention  of 
exploring  the  Holy  Land.  The  trustees  of  the  Semi- 
nary, thus  early  in  its  career,  established  that  tradi- 
tion of  encouragement  to  critical  research  still  char- 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  193 

acteristic  of  the  institution,  by  acceding  to  his  re- 
quest. Fifteen  years  later,  of  their  own  initiative, 
they  voted  him  a  second  leave  of  absence  for  a  sec- 
ond exploration  of  Palestine,  which  they  well  knew 
he  desired  to  make  as  a  supplement  to  his  earlier 
researches.  In  the  autumn  of  1852  Dr.  Robinson 
was  again  in  his  professor's  chair,  which  he  continued 
to  occupy,  with  an  interruption  due  to  an  operation 
for  cataract,  till  very  near  his  death,  which  occurred 
on  January  27,  1863,  in  his  sixty-ninth  year. 

As  we  now  desire  to  follow  our  Explorer  along  the 
highways  and  byways  of  the  Holy  Land,  we  may  be 
able  to  visualize  him  better  if  we  look  at  his  portrait 
painted  in  words  by  Dr.  H.  B.  Smith,  and  to  under- 
stand the  working  of  his  mind  better  if  we  cull  a  few 
observations  from  the  analysis  of  his  intellectual 
qualities  by  Dr.  Hitchcock.  "In  person,"  writes 
Dr.  Smith,  "he  was  built  upon  a  large  and  even 
massive  scale;  with  broad  shoulders,  muscular  limbs, 
that  denoted  capacity  for  great  endurance  and  toil; 
crowned  with  a  head  of  unusual  volume,  a  broad  and 
open  forehead,  with  perceptive  powers  predominant; 
a  shaggy  brow,  a  full,  bright,  piercing  eye,  though 
usually  shaded  through  infirmity;  a  firm,  yet  pliant, 
mouth;  and  altogether  giving  the  impression,  even 
to  a  casual  observer,  of  a  man  of  insight  and  mark. ' '  ^ 
"His  intellect,"  says  Dr.  Hitchcock,  "was  one  of 
great  native  solidity  and  vigor.  For  metaphysical 
subtleties  he  had  no  relish  whatever.  .  .  .  What 
he  saw,  he  was  determined  to  see  clearly.  What  he 
could  not  see  clearly,  ho  did  not  desire  to  look  at  at 

1  Life,  Writings,  and  CliaractiT  of  Ivlward  Kuliinson,  DD.,  p.  13. 


194  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

all.  .  .  .  Till  he  was  quite  sure  of  a  thing,  he 
would  not  affirm  it;  and  it  required  more  to  assure 
him  than  it  does  most  men.  ...  It  might  almost 
be  said  that  what  he  failed  to  notice  was  not  worth 
noticing.  .  .  .  He  might  seem  to  be  lethargic  and 
unimpressible ;  but  in  reality  nothing  which  tran- 
spired in  his  presence  escaped  his  notice.  When  he 
appeared  to  be  seeing  and  hearing  nothing,  he  was 
seeing  and  hearing  all.''^  Could  words  more  fitly 
convey  the  description  of  the  ideal  explorer? 

On  April  12,  1838,  Dr.  Robinson  entered  the 
borders  of  Palestine  at  Beersheba,  with  his  compan- 
ion. Dr.  Eli  Smith,  for  many  years  a  missionary  in 
Syria.  Exactly  one  month  before,  the  travellers 
had  set  out  from  Cairo  for  their  land  journey  to 
Sinai.  Proceeding  from  the  Holy  Mount  to  Akabah, 
they  had  entered  what  Robinson  calls  a  ' '  terra  in- 
cognita" to  geographers,  the  few  travellers  who 
had  crossed  it  in  various  directions  having  left  no 
adequate  report.  The  day  before  striking  Palestine 
proper,  our  explorer  had  recovered  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Elusa,  lost  for  more  than  eleven  centuries. 
This  unexpected  recovery  was  prophetic  of  what  lay 
in  store  beyond  the  border-line.  Robinson  was  des- 
tined to  reconstruct  the  map  of  Palestine;  again  to 
quote  Dr.  Hitchcock:  "He  found  it  afloat  like  an 
island  in  the  sea,  almost  like  a  cloud  in  the  sky  of 
fable,  and  left  it  a  part  of  Asia."  But  how  little 
he  realized  his  destiny  may  be  told  in  his  own  words  : 
"I  entered  upon  my  journey  without  the  slightest 
anticipation  of  the  results  to  which  we  were  provi- 

'  Life,  Writings,  and  Character  of  Edward  Robinson,  D.D.,  pp. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  195 

dentially  led.  My  first  motives  had  been  simply  the 
gratification  of  personal  feelings.  ...  I  had  long 
meditated  the  preparation  of  a  work  on  Biblical 
geography,  and  wished  to  satisfy  myself  by  personal 
observation  as  to  points  on  which  I  could  find  no  in- 
formation in  the  books  of  travellers.  This,  indeed, 
grew  to  be  the  main  object  of  our  journey,  the 
nucleus  around  which  all  our  inquiries  and  observa- 
tions clustered.  But  I  never  thought  of  adding  any- 
thing to  the  former  stock  of  knowledge  on  these 
subjects;  I  never  dreamed  of  anything  like  dis- 
coveries in  this  field.  Palestine  had  for  centuries 
been  visited  by  many  travellers;  and  I  knew  that 
Schubert  had  just  preceded  us  to  explore  the  country 
in  its  physical  aspects,  its  botany  and  geology;  and 
we  could  hope  to  add  nothing  to  what  he  and  others 
had  observed, ' '  ^ 

These  modest  anticipations  led  to  a  modest  scien- 
tific equipment.  For  instruments  the  travellers  had 
only  the  ordinary  surveyor's  and  two  pocket-com- 
passes, a  thermometer,  telescope,  and  measuring- 
tapes.  For  books  they  had  their  Bibles,  both  in 
English  and  in  the  original  tongues;  the  works  on 
Palestine  of  Reland  and  Raumer,  the  travels  of 
Burckhardt  and  Laborde,  and  a  compilation  called 
the  "  Modern  Traveller."  On  their  second  journey 
these  were  supplemented  by  Ritter's  great  work, 
partly  still  in  proof-sheets.  For  maps  they  took 
that  of  Berghaus,  the  best  up  to  date,  but  proving 

1  Researches,  vol.  i,  p.  32.  All  references  are  to  the  ISaG 
edition  of  liis  Biblical  Researches  in  three  volumes,  which  include 
the  later  researches. 


196  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

of  little  service  in  the  parts  of  the  country  visited, 
and  Laborde's  map  of  Sinai  and  Arabia  Petrsea. 
Even  more  simple  were  their  camp  accoutrements. 
The  average  daily  expenditure  for  the  whole  party 
during  the  second  trip  was  under  $5.  Dr.  Rob- 
inson, Dr.  Smith,  and  the  cook  rode  horses;  three 
mules  carried  the  tent,  bedding,  stores,  and  another 
servant.  Bedsteads  were  dispensed  with,  and  some- 
times mattresses  as  well,  the  travellers  sleeping  on 
the  ground.  Ordinary  stores,  such  as  rice  and  bis- 
cuits, were  carried  in  wooden  boxes,  abandoned  later 
for  hair-cloth  bags.  Weapons  during  the  first  trip 
were  taken  only  for  show,  and  on  the  second  were 
not  taken  at  all.  Reviewing  this  simple  equipment 
we  cannot  help  instituting  comparisons.  The  ordi- 
nary tourist  camping  in  Palestine  to-day  enjoys 
many  of  the  luxuries  of  a  modern  hotel.  Canon 
Tristram,  with  his  colleagues  numbering  not  more 
than  half  a  dozen,  had  a  caravan  of  forty-three  beasts 
when  exploring  the  borders  of  the  Dead  Sea  in 
1864.  Tristram,  indeed,  required  extra  animals  to 
carry  his  collections  in  Natural  History,  but  it  may 
be  gathered  that  he  did  not  travel  with  the  simplicity 
of  Robinson.  On  the  other  hand,  Tristram  himself 
complains  of  the  extravagance  of  his  predecessor,  the 
Due  de  Luynes,  whose  princely  expenditure  set  a 
costly  precedent  for  trans- Jordanic  travel. 

For  the  economical  nature  of  his  journeys,  Robin- 
son was  greatly  indebted  to  his  companion,  who  was 
practically  a  domesticated  native  of  the  land.  This 
debt  he  fully  acknowledges.  When  detailing  the 
plans  which  had  been  made  for  the  joint  journey  as 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  197 

early  as  1832,  Robinson  says:  "I  count  myself 
fortunate  in  having  been  thus  early  assured  of  the 
company  of  one  who,  by  his  familiar  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  Arabic  language,  by  his  acquaint- 
ance with  the  people  of  Syria,  and  by  the  experience 
gained  in  former  extensive  journeys,  was  so  well 
qualified  to  alleviate  the  difficulties  and  overcome  the 
obstacles  which  usually  accompany  Oriental  travel. 
Indeed,  to  these  qualifications  of  my  companion,  com- 
bined with  his  taste  for  geographical  and  historical 
researches,  and  his  tact  in  eliciting  and  sifting  the 
information  to  be  obtained  from  an  Arab  population, 
are  mainly  to  be  ascribed  the  more  important  and  in- 
teresting results  of  the  journey.  For  I  am  well 
aware  that,  had  I  been  obliged  to  travel  with 
an  ordinary  uneducated  interpreter,  I  should  have 
naturally  undertaken  much  less  than  we  together 
have  actually  accomplished,  while  many  points  of 
interest  would  have  been  overlooked,  and  many 
inquiries  would  have  remained  without  satisfactory 
answers. ' '  ^ 

Robinson,  as  we  have  seen,  entered  Palestine  from 
the  south  on  April  12,  1838.  Two  months  and  a 
half  later,  on  June  26th,  he  rode  into  Beyrout,  and 
his  first  journey  was  over.  In  our  brief  review  of 
his  work  we  shall  be  obliged  to  consider  his  two  jour- 
neys together.  And,  in  fact,  the  second  links  on  to 
the  first  in  a  remarkable  manner.  In  preparing 
his  first  Biblical  Researches  and  in  considering  the 
criticisms  made  upon  these,  our  traveller  recognized 
not  only  that  certain  portions  of  the  Holy  Land  de- 

'  Rescarclies,  i,  pp.  1  and  2. 


198  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

manded  from  him  a  fuller  examination,  but  also  that 
certain  points  on  which  doubt  had  been  expressed 
should  be  investigated  anew.  "Questions,"  he 
says,  ' '  not  infrequently  arose  which  personal  in- 
quiry on  the  spot  might  have  solved  in  half  an  hour, 
but  to  which  no  amount  of  reading  or  investigation 
at  a  distance  would  ever  afford  an  answer,  inas- 
much as  they  had  never  been  brought  before  the 
mind  of  any  traveller. ' '  ^  The  chief  lacunce  occur- 
ring in  the  earlier  visit  were  Galilee  and  the  regions 
east  and  west  of  the  great  northern  road  leading 
from  Jerusalem  to  Shechem.  Accordingly,  Monday, 
April  5,  1852,  found  Dr.  Robinson  with  Dr.  Smith 
riding  southward  from  Beyrout  on  the  very  road 
along  which  they  had  travelled  together  northward 
just  about  fourteen  years  before.  How  firm  was  the 
link  binding  the  two  journeys  together,  let  us  hear 
in  Dr.  Robinson's  own  words.  After  speaking  of 
pitching  their  first  camp  at  Neby  Yunis,  he  says: 
"  Here  we  were  once  more  in  our  own  tent,  not  the 
same,  indeed,  as  formerly,  yet  so  like  it  as  hardly  to 
be  distinguished;  the  furniture  and  all  our  travel- 
ling equipments  were  similar;  several  articles  were 
the  very  same ;  and  our  places  in  the  tent  were  as  of 
old.  It  was  as  if  we  were  continuing  a  journey  of 
yesterday,  and  the  interYeumg  fourteen  years  seemed 
to  vanish  away.  And  when  we  reverted  to  the 
reality  we  could  not  but  gratefully  acknowledge  the 
mercy  of  God  in  preserving  our  lives  and  permitting 
us  once  more  after  so  long  an  interval  to  prosecute 
together  the  researches  which  we  had  together  begun, 
» III,  p.  1. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  199 

"We  could  not  but  regard  it  as  a  high  and  certainly 
an  unusual  privilege  thus,  after  fourteen  long  years, 
again  to  take  up  the  thread  of  our  investigations  at 
the  very  point  where  they  had  been  broken  off. ' '  ^ 
Dr.  Smith,  who  had  been  our  explorer's  companion 
during  the  entire  first  journey,  accompanied  him  on 
the  second  as  far  as  Jerusalem  and  thence  north- 
ward to  the  foot  of  Hermon.  But  with  the  depart- 
ure of  Dr.  Smith  for  Sidon,  Robinson's  good  fortune 
in  having  a  missionary  guide  did  not  leave  him. 
Dr.  Thomson,  described  by  Renan  as  ' '  the  man  who 
has  traversed  Syria  the  most  extensively, ' '  ^  accom- 
panied him  to  Banias  and  back  to  Hasbeya,  and 
thence  to  within  a  day's  journey  of  Damascus. 
Here  he  was  joined  by  Dr.  Robson  of  the  Damascus 
Mission,  who  travelled  with  him  to  Baalbec,  then 
around  the  northern  end  of  Lebanon  to  the  Cedars, 
and  so  to  Beyrout,  which  was  reached  on  June 
19th. 

Collating  the  two  journeys,  we  find  that  Dr.  Rob- 
inson was  travelling  in  Syria  and  Palestine  only  five 
months.  The  maximum  period  of  his  investigations, 
including  his  tour  from  Cairo  to  Beersheba  and  de- 
lays in  Beyrout,  before  and  after  his  travels,  covered, 
in  all,  about  seven  months.  ^  But  from  his  brief 
opportunities  what  a  wealth  of  knowledge  did  he 
gather!  How  great  an  extent  of  ground  did  he 
cover!     Tracing  in  ink   his  routes  on  the  map  of 

'  III,  pp.  34-35. 

*  Mission  de  Plienicie,  p.  883. 

'  Note  that  the  shorter  period  includes  liis  two  stays  in  Jerusalem, 
and  that  he  profited  by  a  delay  in  IJcyrout  to  nmke  excursions  in 
the  Lebanon. 


200  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

Judea  we  make  a  close  net- work  of  crossing  lines.* 
Less  close  are  the  lines  in  Samaria,  Galilee,  the  Leb- 
anon, and  Syria  proper,  yet  even  here  the  ramifi- 
cation is  remarkable.  But  the  map  shows  blank 
stretches.  Between  Gaza  and  Tyre,  a  distance  of 
over  140  miles,  the  sea-coast  is  blackened  only  by  a 
dot  at  Acre.  Thus,  the  Philistine  towns  of  Ascalon 
and  Ashdod  were  unvisited,  Csesarea  and  Carmel 
were  unexplored,  the  ladder  of  Tyre  was  not  crossed. 
Eastern  Palestine,  again,  was  practically  untouched. 
The  Jordan  was  crossed  only  when  our  explorer 
made  his  brief  raid  which  resulted  in  the  recovery 
of  the  ancient  Pella  and  farther  north  where  he  ex- 
amined its  main  sources.  Local  disturbances  pre- 
vented his  penetrating  the  Hauran,  and  impending 
illness  forced  him  to  give  up  a  proposed  trip  to 
Hums  and  Antioch  in  Northern  Syria.  Thankful  as 
we  are  for  what  he  has  given  us,  we  cannot  help  re- 
gretting that  circumstances  prevented  this  wonder- 
ful man  from  reporting  on  every  nook  and  cranny  of 
the  Holy  Land  he  loved. 

Following  his  journeys,  we  are  struck  with  the 
leisurely  rapidity  with  which  they  were  made.  He 
never  wasted  any  time;  he  never  was  in  a  hurry. 
It  may  be  added  that  he  seldom  got  excited.  Canon 
Tristram,  who  certainly  does  not  himself  lack  the  .art 
of  expressing  enthusiasm,  notes  that  the  wild  scenery 
about  the  Natural  Bridge,  over  the  Litany,  is  called 

'  Our  author  tells  us  (i,  p.  434)  that  they  avoided  passing  for  any 
distance  over  the  same  ground  twice  in  their  many  excursions  from 
Jerusalem,  excej)t  tlie  short  interval  between  Jerusalem  and  Beth- 
lehem. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  201 

**  magnificent  even  by  the  impassive  Dr.  Robinson." 
And  yet  it  must  not  be  hastily  assumed  that  he  was 
not  moved  by  very  deep  feeling.  His  search  for  the 
long-lost  Eleutheropolis,  the  ancient  Beto  Gabra,  ap- 
peared to  be  rewarded  by  a  visit  to  Beit  Jibrin, 
whose  remains  were  found  to  accord  well  with  the 
historical  notices  of  the  Greek  city.  One  piece  of 
evidence,  however,  remained  to  be  tested.  The 
Onomasticon  states  that  a  village  called  Yedhna  lay 
six  miles  from  Eleutheropolis.  Robinson,  hearing 
that  a  village  by  the  name  of  Idhna  was  in  the  hills 
to  the  east,  mounted,  at  6  a.m.,  in  quest  of  the 
missing  clew.  ' '  I  know  not  when  I  have  felt  more 
the  excitement  of  suspense,"  he  writes,  "than 
while  travelling  this  short  distance.  A  question  of 
some  historical  importance  was  depending  on  the 
circumstance  whether  we  reached  Idhna  at  eight 
o'clock.  If  so,  our  researches  for  the  long-lost 
Eleutheropolis  would  be  crowned  with  success;  if 
not,  we  were  again  afloat  and  certain  of  no  thing. 
.  .  .  At  7.50  we  came  to  the  head  of  the  valley. 
.  It  now  wanted  ten  minutes  to  eight  o'clock, 
and  as  yet  nothing  was  to  be  seen  of  Idhna.  But 
as  we  reached  the  top  of  the  ascent,  the  village 
lay  before  us,  somewhat  lower  down  on  the  other 
side,  and  precisely  at  eight  o'clock  we  entered  the 
place  and  dismounted  at  the  house  of  the  Sheikh. 
We  thus  proved  Idhna  to  be  just  two  hours,  or 
six  Roman  miles,  from  Beit  Jibrin,  which  is  the 
specified  distance  of  Yedhna  from  Eleutheropolis."  ^ 
Not  a  picturesque  adjective  here,    but  is  nut  the 

'  II,  pp.  5G,  57. 


202  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

little  narrative  tense  with   the   excitement  of  the 
rider? 

Before  reviewing  the  contents  of  the  Biblical  Re- 
searches, which  embody  the  results  of  Robinson's 
travels,  it  may  be  well  to  note  the  form  which  these 
took.  This  was  a  matter  of  some  weighty  consid- 
eration to  the  author  himself.  The  material  existed 
in  the  journals  of  Drs.  Robinson  and  Smith,  compiled 
every  evening  from  notes  taken  during  the  day. 
Through  a  friend  of  Dr.  Robson,  companion  to  Dr. 
Robinson  in  his  northern  tour,  I  have  learned  that 
no  amount  of  fatigue  prevented  the  explorer  from 
writing  up  his  journal  in  his  tent,  sometimes  as  late 
as  eleven  at  night.  The  value  to  an  explorer  of 
such  systematic  habits  cannot  be  over-emphasized. 
The  yielding  to  a  headache  by  one  traveller  at  some 
inaccessible  spot  may  lay  the  necessity  of  a  long 
journey  upon  another.  Robinson  himself  points  out, 
with  kindly  humor,  that  some  discrepancies  between 
Burckhardt's  recorded  observations  and  his  own  were 
probably  to  be  explained  by  the  latter 's  confession 
that  he  had  not  taken  notes  for  two  days.  Smith's 
journals  were  never  seen  by  Robinson  till  the  first 
journey  was  over,  and  the  recognition  of  the  almost 
entire  coincidence  of  the  two  records  brought  both 
surprise  and  satisfaction.  How  best  to  present  to 
the  world  these  joint  observations  was  another  ques- 
tion. Yielding  to  the  advice  of  his  friends,  Robin- 
son abandoned  his  original  plan  of  embodying  in  his 
memoir  only  the  results  of  his  exploration,  without 
reference  to  personal  incidents.  Hasty  judgment 
might  convict  him  of  turning  away  from  the  more 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  203 

scientific  treatment.  But  I  think  that  his  careful 
students  come  to  feel  that  he  rightly  gave  weight  to 
the  consideration  that  the  narrative  form  would  best 
help  the  reader  to  follow  ' '  the  manner  in  which  the 
promised  land  unfolded  itself  to  our  eyes  and  the 
process  by  which  we  were  led  to  the  conclusions  and 
opinions  advanced  in  this  work. ' '  ^  Thus  admirably 
did  he  foreshadow  the  historic  method  which  to-day 
— to  give  one  example — places  the  History  of  Doc- 
trine above  Dogmatics. 

We  are  bound  to  admit,  however,  that  Robinson 
yielded  to  some  of  the  temptations  to  which  the  edi- 
tor of  his  own  journals  is  subjected.  As  a  rule,  the 
personal  incidents  are  instructive,  often  illustrat- 
ing folk-lore,  as  when  he  details  his  entertainment 
by  the  governor  of  Akabah,^  or  describes  the  chil- 
dren of  his  Arab  cameleer,  ^  but  such  passages  as 
that  taken  up  with  the  midnight  barking  of  a  dog 
causing  alarmed  anticipation,  which  came  to  nothing, 
are  of  no  relevance.^  Generally  speaking,  however, 
Robinson's  style  is  condensed  and  full  of  meat. 
Apart  from  the  rich  historical  discussions,  a  most 
important  feature  in  dealing  with  a  given  site  is  a 
rapid  review  showing  how  far  and  in  what  period  it 
had  hitherto  been  known  to  visitors.  "He  used 
freely,"  says  Dr.  Hitchcock,  "whatever  lay  open  to 
be  freely  used.  But  he  took  the  learning  of  others, 
whether  dead  or  living,  not  for  a  Jacob's  pillow  to 
sleep  on,  but  for  a  Jacob's  ladder  to  climb  by."  By 
a  somewhat  laborious  process  of  collating  his  three 

'  Preface,  p.  vii.  '  I,  p.  1(!4. 

» I,  p.  149.  ♦  I,  p.  183. 


204  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

volumes,  I  might,  relying  upon  no  other  source,  have 
sketched  the  development  of  Palestine  Exploration, 
with  a  general  description  of  the  routes  taken  by  the 
chief  travellers,  from  the  Bordeaux  Pilgrim  to  the 
great  author  himself! 

In  contrast  to  the  squabbling  for  priority  which 
soils  the  pages  of  so  many  explorers,  Robinson's  de- 
termination to  give  every  traveller  or  geographer  his 
due  is  at  once  refreshing  and  edifying.  ^  His  achieve- 
ment, however,  in  this  line  is  not  always  commensu- 
rate with  his  spirit.  Even  this  Homer  nods.  Ziph, 
he  says, 2  is  mentioned  by  no  writer  sirtce  Jerome,  yet 
I  find  the  name  in  Fetellus,  Burchard,  and  Marino 
Sanuto,  authors  often  quoted  by  him.  Ekron  he  de- 
clares 3  to  have  been  entirely  overlooked  by  all  Frank 
travellers  since  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  yet  Sandys  ■^ 
mentioned  it  when  in  1611  he  travelled  from  Gaza 
to  Jerusalem,  and  Shaw  (1722)^  gives  it  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  survival  of  an  old  name,  placing  it  cor- 
rectly on  his  map.  Both  Sandys  and  Shaw  are  given 
the  star  of  praise  in  Robinson's  bibliography.  But  I 
refrain  from  giving  further  examples.  Having  dis- 
covered spots  on  the  sun,  their  exact  number  we  do 
not  need  to  count.  After  all,  they  are  invisible  to 
the  naked  eye. 

'Note  his  quaint  remarks  on  tlie  identification  of  Khurbet  Fahil 
witli  Pella,  wliicii  iiad  stru(;k  liini  in  reading  the  works  of  Irby  and 
Mangles,  and  whicii  "  was  entertained  l)y  Kiepert,  wlio  likewise  used 
the  volume  in  making  out  the  maps  for  my  work.  By  which  one 
the  suggestion  was  first  made  to  the  other  it  may  now  be  difficult  to 
determine."     (Ill,  p.  32:?.) 

M,  p.  4;'2  ''  II.  II.  22.S. 

'Sandys  s  Travailes,  p.  118.  'Shaw,  vol.  ii,  p.  4;5. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  205 

The  manuscript  of  the  "Researches"  describing 
the  first  journey,  prepared  in  Berlin,  was  completed 
in  August,  1840.  The  simultaneous  publication  in 
English  and  German  aroused  unbounded  enthusiasm 
in  scientific  quarters,  while  it  provoked  hostile  criti- 
cism on  the  part  of  the  traditionalists  whom  Robin- 
son had  antagonized  with  such  severity.  Friend  and 
foe,  however,  recognized  in  it  an  epoch-making  work. 
It  obtained  for  him  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  of  London.  The  great  geog- 
rapher Ritter  called  it  "  a  classic  in  its  own  field — 
a  production  which  has  already  set  the  geography  of 
the  Holy  Land  on  a  more  fixed  basis  than  it  ever  had 
before,  and  which  will  ensure  its  continued  advance. ' '  ^ 
Olshausen's  prophecy  that  "  the  admirable  princi- 
ples of  investigation  which  are  unfolded  in  Robin- 
son's work  will  serve  as  a  beacon  for  all  future  ex- 
plorers," was  fulfilled  by  the  Officers  of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund.  Speaking  in  Manchester  in  1875 
of  the  Fund's  Survey,  Conder,  the  worthy  successor 
of  Robinson,  declared:  "The  results  of  his  travels 
formed  the  groundwork  of  modern  research,  and 
showed  how  much  could  be  done  toward  recovering 
the  ancient  topography.  He  proved  that  the  old 
nomenclature  clings  to  Palestine  in  an  extraordinary 
manner  and  that  in  the  memory  of  the  peasant  popu- 
lation the  true  sites  have  been  preserved  undiscov- 
ered by  the  Frank  invaders.  .  .  .  It  is  in  his 
steps  that  we  have  trod.  With  greater  advantages, 
more  time  and  more  money,  we  have  been  able  to 
more  than  double  the  number  of  his  discoveries,  but 

'  See  Gage's  traii.slatioi),  vol.  ii,  p.  70. 


206  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

the  cases  in  which  we  have  found  him  wrong  are  few 
and  far  between. ' '  ^ 

While  our  Union  professor  covered,  in  a  general 
way,  the  wide  programme  later  laid  down  by  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  his  fixed  idea  of  bending 
his  main  energies  toward  the  study  of  the  physical 
and  historical  geography  of  the  Holy  Land  controlled 
all  his  investigations.  His  valuable  notes  on  geol- 
ogy, natural  history,  and  folk-lore  bear  a  small 
proportion  to  the  bulk  of  his  work.  Even  in  the 
matter  of  archaeology,  where  he  is  much  fuller,  he 
does  not  write  as  a  specialist.  We  have  noted  that 
he  travelled  eastward  from  Beit  Jibrin  for  six  miles 
with  the  sole  purpose  of  obtaining  evidence  to  com- 
plete the  argument  for  identifying  that  site  with 
Eleutheropolis,  but  he  does  not  pause  at  Kefr  Kuk 
to  copy  a  mutilated  Greek  inscription,  or  to  hunt  up 
two  or  three  others  which  he  hears  of.  ' '  These  re- 
mains prove  the  antiquity  of  the  place,"  he  says, 
and  rides  on.  2  Regarding  the  archaeological  features 
of  Sidon,  he  generalizes  as  follows:  "The  remains 
of  antiquity  in  and  around  Sidon  are  few, ' '  ^  only 
barely  mentioning  the  rock-cut  sepulchres  in  the  hill 
to  the  east,  noticed  both  by  Maundrell  and  Pococke, 
and  doubtless  familiar  to  his  companion.  Dr.  Smith. 
The  true  nature  of  the  Tells  or  Mounds,  in  which 
centres  the  interest  of  the  modern  Palestine  excava- 
tor, was  not  appreciated  by  him.  At  Tell-el-Hesy, 
where  have  been  excavated  parts  of  eight  superim- 

'  Q.  S.,  1876,  pp.  34  ff.  We  may  add  that  Renan  in  his  Mission 
de  Phenicie  (p.  785)  refers  to  the  "  vast  and  conscientious  work  of 
Rol)inson." 

Mil,  p.  434.  Mil,  p.  30;  of.  ii,  p.  480. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  207 

posed  cities  illustrating  the  history  of  Lachish,  he 
says:  "A  finer  position  for  a  fortress  or  fortified 
city  could  hardly  be  imagined.  Yet  we  could  dis- 
cover nothing  whatever  to  mark  the  existence  of  any 
former  town  or  structure."  ^  He  passed  the  village 
of  Kubeibeh,  but  does  not  mention  its  magnificent 
mound — Tell  Duweir — on  whose  surface  may  be 
picked  up  jar-handles  inscribed  with  a  royal  Jewish 
stamp,  which  make  one  long  to  penetrate  to  the  pre- 
Israelite  depths  below.  Of  Tell-es-Sultan,  under 
which  some  day  will  be  excavated  the  walls  of 
Jericho,  stormed  by  the  Hebrews,  he  writes :  "  [It  is] 
a  high  double-mound,  or  group  of  mounds,  looking 
much  like  a  tumulus,  or  as  if  composed  of  rubbish. ' '  2 
' '  The  earliest  city  .  .  .  would  naturally  have  been 
near  the  fountain.  .  .  .  But  any  distinct  traces  of 
the  former  city  are  now  hardly  to  be  looked  for. ' '  ^ 
Had  Robinson  followed  archaeological  literature  as 
systematically  as  he  studied  geographical  and  his- 
torical works,  he  could  not  have  failed  to  have  seen 
an  analogy  between  the  small  mounds  of  Pales- 
tine and  the  extensive  ruins  of  Babylon,  described 
by  Rich  in  1812  as  consisting  of  "mounds  of  earth 
formed  by  the  decomposition  of  buildings,  channelled 
and  furrowed  by  the  weather,  and  the  surface  of 
them  strewn  with  pieces  of  brick,  bitumen,  and  pot- 
tery. "*     What  riches  of  architecture  the  Mesopo- 

'  II,  p.  48.  He  adds  in  a  foot-note,  however,  that  this  is  probably 
the  hill  described  by  Volney  as  artificial. 

'  I,  p.  555.  3  I,  p.  565. 

*C.  T.  Rich's  First  Memoir  of  Babylon,  written  in  1812,  was 
publislit'd  in  German  in  1813  and  in  English  in  18 IG.  The  second 
Memuir  appeared  in  1818. 


208  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

tamian  mounds  conceal,  he  had  doubtless  read  be- 
fore his  second  journey  in  Botta's  "Monument  de 
Nineve  "  (Paris,  1849-50)  and  Layard's  early  work, 
"Nineveh  and  its  Remains"  (London,  1848). 

Having  acknowledged  Robinson's  limitations  in 
the  field  of  archaeology,  we  hasten  to  add  that  he 
made  many  important  contributions  to  this  science. 
Though  the  fragment  of  an  arch,  projecting  from 
the  west  wall  of  the  Haram  enclosure  at  Jerusalem, 
was  noticed  by  Catherwood  in  1833,  its  identification 
with  the  bridge  which,  according  to  Josephus,  con- 
nected the  Temple  with  Mt.  Zion,  was  made  by 
our  explorer,  and  appropriately  bears  the  name  of 
Robinson's  Arch  to  this  day.  He  was  the  first  to 
call  proper  attention  to  the  remains  of  a  large  city 
which  once  had  been  built  at  Petra,  covering  an  area 
not  much  Jess  than  two  miles  in  circumference.  ^  His 
predecessors  here  had  almost  entirely  confined  their 
observations  to  the  unique  rock-dwellings.  He,  too, 
was  the  first  traveller  to  report  on  the  dark  windings 
of  the  Tunnel  leading  for  over  1,700  feet  from  the 
Virgin's  Fountain  to  the  Pool  of  Siloam;  and  the 
careful  measurements  he  took  agree  very  closely 
with  those  of  Sir  Charles  "Warren,  thirty  years  later.  ^ 
Important  discoveries  were  made  in  Galilee.  By 
comparing  several  ancient  structures,  showing  a 
peculiar  architecture,  with  the  remains  of  a  building 
which  had  been  previously  recognized  as  a  Jewish 
synagogue,  Robinson  proved  that  all  these  buildings 
fell  under  the  same  category.    He  was  thus  the  first 

'II,  p.  i:3G. 

- 1,  p.  338 ;  cf .  lifcovcry  of  .KTUsalein,  p.  239. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  209 

to  recognize  a  synagogue  at  Tell  Hum,  one  of  the 
claimants  for  the  site  of  Capernaum.  ^  He  also  made 
an  especial  examination  of  the  temples  in  the  vicinity 
of  Mt.  Hermon,  between  Hermon  and  Damascus,  and 
in  the  Anti-Lebanon,  in  many  cases  giving  elaborate 
measurements. 

We  have  now  come  to  the  chief  objects  of  Robin- 
son's Researches,  the  physical  geography  of  the 
Holy  Land  and  the  identification  of  Biblical  sites. 
Here  he  placed  his  main  stress.  His  geographical 
investigations  often  led  him  to  take  new  routes  in 
order  to  fill  in  lacunce  in  former  descriptions.  His 
search  for  lost  sites  led  to  his  exploring  many  a 
small  place  unnoticed  before.  For  the  work  of 
identification  elaborate  preparation  was  made.  Con- 
vinced of  the  worthlessness  of  ecclesiastical  tradition, 
convinced  that  in  the  modern  names  the  ancient 
nomenclature  lay  in  fossil  form,  Drs.  Robinson  and 
Smith  avoided  as  far  as  possible  all  contact  with  the 
convents  and  the  authority  of  the  monks,  resolving 
to  apply  for  information  solely  to  the  native  popula- 
tion. While  visiting  the  chief  centres,  as  Jerusalem 
or  Gaza,  they  collected  lists  of  the  names  of  the 
modern  villages  and  of  the  ruins  of  the  surrounding 
districts  from  the  inhabitants  or  from  wandering 

'  III.  p.  340.  Robinson  missed  the  ruins  at  Kasyuii  (a  site  de- 
clared afterward  by  Kenan  to  be  of  prime  importance  for  Jewish 
remainsj,  but  on  reading  later  the  notes  of  I'orter,  lie  sugji^ests 
that  the  ruins  there  described  may  be  those  of  a  synagogue 
(iii,  p.  ?j(')',V).  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  large  edifice  at  Kadesli 
Naphtali,  declared  by  Robinson  to  i)e  a  synagogue,  Kenan  sees  a 
heathen  tenii)le  (iii,  j).  ;5t;8) ;  cf.  Kenan's  Mission  de  I'henicie,  pp. 
(;«4  .')  and  7<;2  S. 


210  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

Bedawin.i  In  searching  for  a  given  site  they  never 
defeated  their  object  by  asking  a  direct  question,  to 
which  the  amiable  Syrian  usually  gives  the  answer 
best  calculated  to  please,  but  they  employed  a 
method  of  cross-examination  worthy  of  a  lawyer. 
Thus  equipped,  both  by  method  and  preparation, 
they  were  able  sometimes  in  one  brief  visit  greatly 
to  enrich  the  subject  of  Biblical  identification.  From 
the  top  of  the  hill  of  Main,  east  of  Hebron,  they 
could  distinguish  eight  villages  and  ruins  bearing 
the  Arabic  equivalents  of  the  names  of  eight  towns 
of  Judah.  Thus,  in  one  sweep  of  the  eye,  our 
travellers  added  to  the  list  of  recognized  Biblical 
sites  the  names  of  Ziph,  Anab,  Jattir,  Maon,  Esh- 
temoa,  Juttah,  and  Shocoh  in  the  Mountains. ^ 
Some  of  these  had  not  been  mentioned  since  the 
time  of  Jerome;  others  occur  in  Seetzen's  map,  but 
with  no  attempt  at  identification.  In  Kurmul  alone 
had  modern  travellers  previous  to  Robinson  recog- 
nized an  ancient  site — the  Carmel  of  Judah.  ^  In  a 
two  days'  excursion,  north  and  northeast  of  Jeru- 
salem, our  travellers  placed  on  a  firm  basis  the  iden- 
tification of  Anathoth,  Geba,  Michmash,  and  Bethel. ^ 
Among  scores  of  other  additions  made  by  Robinson 
to  the  modern  science  of  Biblical  Identification  are 

*  I,  p  250.  Robinson  acknowledges  that  this  method  had  been 
successfully  employed  by  Seetzen  and  Burckhardt  in  Eastern  Pales- 
tine, but  states  that  up  to  his  time  no  one  had  followed  this  ex- 
ample in  Western  Palestine. 

^I,  p.  494. 

3  All  these  identifications,  except  that  of  Anab,  are  adopted  in 
Armstrong's  Names  and  Places. 

*  I,  j)p.  430  ff. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  211 

the  interesting  sites  of  Shiloh,  Beth-Shemesh, 
Mareshah,  and  the  Vale  of  Elah.^  He,  too,  was  the 
first  in  our  day  carefully  to  work  out  the  identifica- 
tion of  Megiddo  with  Lejjun  and  of  Jezreel  with 
Zera'in.2  Nor  was  this  work  of  his  confined  to  Bib- 
lical sites.  His  eager  search  for  Eleutheropolis  in- 
dicates how  keen  was  his  scent  for  Greek  and  Roman 
places  not  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Even  out- 
of-the-way  Crusading  remains  interested  him.  Tris- 
tram, visiting  the  almost  inaccessible  Kula'at  Kurein, 
southeast  of  Tyre,  in  1863,  draws  a  plan  of  the  castle 
and  says :  "  It  is  strange  that  history  affords  not  the 
slightest  clew  to  the  origin  and  builders  of  the 
fortress.  "3  Thomson,  to  whose  description  he  re- 
fers, gives  the  good  Canon  no  help.  And  yet  our 
Robinson,  passing  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Castle 
eleven  years  before,  casually  but  correctly  remarks 
that  it  is  the  Montfort  of  the  Crusaders.'* 

The  judicious  temper  of  mind  controlling  his  ob- 
servations is  well  illustrated  by  his  comparison  of  the 
impressions  gathered  by  viewing  the  district  around 
the  Waters  of  Merom  from  the  high  mountains  to 
the  west,  with  those  resulting  from  examination  at 
shorter  range:   "  The  whole  plain  of  the  Huleh  was 

'  In  the  indoxea  of  Ancient  Geographical  Names  (at  the  end  of 
vols,  ii  and  iii,  reapoctivoly)  Itobinson  marks  by  an  asterisk : 
''  Ancient  places  now  first  visited  or  identified."  Collating  the  two 
indexes,  we  find  over  100  thus  marked.  These,  however,  include 
some  placx's  not  mentioned  in  Sacred  history. 

^  I>'jjun  is  the  llonian  Legio;  the  ancient  site  of  Megiddo  was 
doubtless  at  the  neighboring  'rell-el-Mutasellini  where  Dr.  Hobin- 
son,  with  liis  usual  nun-comprehension  of  mounds,  found  no  traces 
of  a  city.     Hut  he  was  on  the  right  track. 

3  The  Land  of  Israel,  p.  80.  '  III,  p.  (Hi. 


212  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

before  us.  .  .  .  We  thought  we  could  here 
trace  clearly  the  various  streams  flowing  through  the 
plain  and  distinguish  accurately  their  points  of  junc- 
ture. These  I  carefully  noted,  but  the  subsequent 
result  taught  me  a  lesson  in  respect  to  judgments 
formed  under  such  circumstances ;  I  mean  when  look- 
ing down  from  a  lofty  point  of  view  upon  an  exten- 
sive tract  of  country  below.  A  few  days  afterward 
when  I  came  to  traverse  the  Huleh,  and  follow  the 
streams  to  their  junction,  most  of  my  notes  proved 
to  be  entirely  wrong. ' '  ^  Such  a  reporter  himself 
furnishes  the  criterion  by  which  his  observations 
may  be  judged. 

As  a  final  illustration  of  his  candor,  of  his  reject- 
ing the  explorer's  temptation  to  make  an  identifica- 
tion at  any  price,  we  may  cite  his  discovery  of  the 
ruins  of  er-Ruheibeh,  covering  a  level  tract  of  eight 
or  ten  acres,  a  day's  ride  southwest  of  Beersheba. 
' '  These  ruins, ' '  he  says,  ' '  have  apparently  been 
seen  by  no  former  traveller  and  it  was  only  by  acci- 
dent that  we  stumbled  upon  them.  The  place  must 
anciently  have  been  of  some  note  and  importance; 
but  what  city  could  it  have  been?  This  is  a  ques- 
tion which,  after  long  inquiry,  and  with  the  best 
aid  from  the  light  of  European  science,  I  am  as  yet 
unable  to  answer. "  ^  A  less  conscientious  explorer 
would  have  made  the  identification  with  Rehoboth, 
one  of  Isaac's  wells  in  the  vicinity  of  Beersheba,  but 
the  apparent  absence  of  a  well,  together  with  other 
reasons,  led  him  to  reject  this.  It  was  left  to  a 
later    traveller    to    discover   wells    here,   and   this 

'  III,  p.  370.  ^  I,  p.  197. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  213 

identification  finds  a  tentative  place  in  Armstrong's 
"  Names  and  Places." 

We  have  noticed  the  scepticism  regarding  eccle- 
siastical tradition  controlling  Robinson's  researches; 
a  scepticism  not  negative  but  brilliantly  positive ;  a 
scepticism  not  barren  but  productive  of  a  rich  har- 
vest; destruction  followed,  when  possible,  by  recon- 
struction. But  he  had  the  defect  of  his  quality. 
His  methods  of  destruction  are  sometimes  open  to 
criticism.  Hearty  recognition  we  have  already  given 
to  his  admirable  fusion  of  accurate  observation,  clear 
judgment,  and  downright  common-sense;  we  are 
bound  now  to  take  count  of  his  lapses  from  a  calm 
and  scientific  temper.  ^  Spots  held  in  peculiar  vener- 
ation by  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Eastern  clergy 
seem  to  have  been  thereby  rendered  obnoxious  to 
him,  and  were  visited  with  obvious  reluctance. 
Thus,  the  day  after  his  first  arrival  in  Jerusalem,  in 
1838,  he  witnessed  part  of  the  Easter  ceremonies  in 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  "but,"  he  says, 
"  to  be  in  the  ancient  City  of  the  Most  High  and  to 
see  these  venerated  places  and  the  very  name  of  our 
Holy  Religion  profaned  by  lying  and  idle  mumme- 
ries, while  the  proud  Mussulmen  looked  on  with 
haughty  scorn — all  this  excited  in  my  mind  a  feel- 
ing too  painful  to  be  borne,  and  I  never  visited 
the  place  again.  "2     Here  speaks  the  Puritan,  not 

'Note  the  too  sweeping  character  of  his  famous  dictum  :  "  That 
all  ecclesiastical  tradition  respecting  ancient  places  in  and  around 
Jerusalem  and  throughout  Palestine  is  of  no  value,  except  so  far 
as  it  is  supported  by  circumstances  known  from  tlie  Scriptures,  or 
from  other  contemporary  testimony."     (Vol.  iii,  p.  2G3.) 

n,  p.  224. 


214  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

the  Explorer.  Robinson's  personal  attitude  toward 
ritual  was  his  own  affair,  but  to  have  let  this  stand 
in  the  way  of  his  thorough  examination  of  one  of  the 
most  interesting  buildings  in  the  world  was  not 
worthy  of  one  who  crawled  on  hands  and  knees 
through  the  windings  of  the  Siloam  Tunnel.  In 
1838  he  did  not  know  that  he  was  to  revisit  Pales- 
tine, hence  this  brief  glimpse  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
was  intended  to  be  final.  In  1852  he  did  so  far 
overcome  his  prejudices  as  to  enter  the  Church, 
' '  mainly, ' '  he  acknowledges,  ' '  in  order  to  look  at  the 
Tomb  of  Joseph  and  Nicodemus,  so  called. "  ^  Judg- 
ing Robinson  by  the  great  mass  of  his  work,  we 
would  expect  him  to  be  fair  in  every  historical  dis- 
cussion. But  judging  Robinson  by  his  biassed  at- 
titude in  visiting  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  we  should  be 
prepared  to  find  that  his  usual  impartiality  is  some- 
what relaxed ;  that  his  usual  clear  judgment  is  some- 
what obscured  in  dealing  with  its  alleged  discovery 
as  recounted  by  Eusebius.  On  strict  examination 
his  exegesis  is  not  found  to  be  fully  warranted.  His 
conclusions,  though  partially  legitimate,  appear  to 
me  to  be  somewhat  too  sweeping  and  their  explana- 
tion somewhat  ex  parte.  In  view  of  the  authority 
that  may  be  justly  attached  to  Robinson's  conclu- 
sions in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  we  should  dwell 
for  a  moment  on  the  exceptional  case,  especially  as 
it  involves  his  cause  celebre,  which  made  his  book  the 
subject  of  fierce  controversy.  Here  he  is  both  law- 
yer and  jury.  My  complaint  is  not  against  the  ver- 
dict of  the  jury,  but  against  the  special  pleading  of 
the  lawyer. 

•  III,  p.  180. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  215 

Any  discussion  of  Eusebius's  account  is  compli- 
cated by  the  apparently  contradictory  elements  which 
it  contains.  Certain  passages  appear  on  first  reading 
to  favor  the  view  that  the  alleged  discovery  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  by  Constantine's  agents  was  based  on 
previous  information;  others  appear  to  involve  the 
idea  that  it  was  held  to  be  the  result  of  miraculous 
intimation  or  intervention.  Now  we  may  assume 
that  under  Eusebius's  rhetoric  there  was  a  meaning 
perfectly  clear  to  himself.  Holding  no  brief  for  or 
against  the  traditional  site,  I  believe  that  a  harmony 
may  be  found  in  the  passages,  without  doing  violence 
to  any  of  these.  ^  Briefly  but  essentially  his  account 
is  as  follows :  At  some  time  previous  to  Constantine, 
the  place  of  the  Saviour's  resurrection  in  Jerusalem 
had  been  purposely  consigned  to  darkness  and  ob- 
livion by  ungodly  men,  who,  after  covering  it  up 
with  earth,  had  erected  on  the  site  a  shrine  to  Aphro- 
dite. The  Emperor,  being  inspired  by  the  Divine 
Spirit,  "could  not  bear  to  see  the  place  concealed  by 
the  artifices  of  adversaries,"  but,  calling  upon  God  to 
help  him,  gave  orders  that  the  place  should  be  puri- 
fied. The  shrine  was  destroyed,  the  mound  was 
removed  layer  by  layer,  until  at  last,  "contrary  to 
all  hope,"  the  sepulchral  cave  was  brought  to  light. 

» I  do  not  propose  here  to  discuss  the  site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
nor  the  various  accounts  of  its  alleged  discovery,  nor  even  liobin- 
son's  topographical  arguments  against  the  traditional  site.  The 
scope  of  this  sketch  does  not  include  such  matters.  My  aim  is 
merely  to  illustrate  a  certain  bias  in  Itobinson  by  showing  how  he 
deals  with  Eusebius's  narrative.  The  whole  subject  of  "Golgotha 
and  the  Holy  Sepulchre  "  has  been  critically  treated  by  Sir  Charles 
Wilson  in  a  scries  of  i)apers  in  the  Q  S.  of  the  V.  E.  F.  (.Ian., 
iy02-.Jan.,  1904,  inclusive),  soon  to  be  published  in  book  form. 


216  PALESTINE    EXPLORATION 

Thereupon  the  Emperor  commanded  the  erection  of 
a  house  of  prayer  on  the  site,  ' '  not  having  hit  upon 
the  project  without  the  aid  of  God,  but  having  been 
impelled  to  it  by  the  Spirit  of  the  Saviour  himself. ' ' 
' '  This  project  he  had  had  for  some  time  in  mind 
and  had  foreseen  as  if  by  superior  intelligence  what 
was  going  to  happen."  To  Macarius,  Bishop  or 
Jerusalem,  he  wrote  as  follows:  "No  power  of  lan- 
guage appears  worthy  to  describe  the  present  won- 
der. For  that  the  token  of  that  most  holy  Passion, 
long  ago  buried  underground,  should  have  remained 
unknown  for  so  many  cycles  of  years  until  it  should 
shine  forth  to  his  servants,  .  .  .  truly  tran- 
scends all  marvel. ' '  ^ 

Now,  Robinson  seems  to  have  overlooked  the  fact 
that  this  account  appears  distinctly  to  assume  that 
before  Constantine  gave  orders  for  the  destruction 
of  the  shrine  of  Venus,  he  believed  that  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  lay  concealed  somewhere  beneath  it.  2  On 
the  other  hand,  he  makes  wrong  application  of  the 
passages  indicating  that  Constantine  was  moved  by 
Divine  Intimation.      "What,  then,"  he  says,  "after 

1  Our  Summary  is  condensed  from  Dr.  Bernard's  translation  of 
Chaps.  26-30  of  Eusebius's  Life  of  Constantine,  P.  P.  T. ,  vol.  i. 
We  cannot  here  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  aml)iguous  passage 
quoted  from  the  letter  to  Macarius,  which  may  or  may  not  refer  to 
the  Invention  of  the  Cross,  otherwise  unnoticed  by  Eusebius.  Rob- 
inson says  (iii,  257,  note  2),  "  It  makes  no  difference  to  the  argu- 
ment wluch  way  it  is  understood,"  holding  that  the  language  is  too 
strong  to  apply  merely  to  the  removal  of  obstructions  from  a  well- 
known  spot.  To  us  the  passage  would  appear  to  be  natural  if  re- 
ferring to  the  discovery  of  the  Cross,  higlily  rhetorical  if  applied 
to  the  recovery  of  the  cave;  but  higlily  rhetorical  is  just  what  Euse- 
bius is  tliroughout  the  whole  discussion. 

-  liut  see  note  1  on  page  218. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  217 

all,  is  the  amount  of  testimony  relative  to  an  idol 
erected  over  the  place  of  the  resurrection  and  serving 
to  mark  the  spot?  It  is  simply  that  writers  {i.e., 
Eusebius  and  later  historians)  ex  post  facto  have  men- 
tioned such  an  idol  as  standing,  not  over  the  Sepul- 
chre known  of  old  as  being  that  of  Christ,  but  over  the 
spot  fixed  upon  by  Constantine  as  that  Sepulchre. "  "  Their 
testimony  proves  conclusively  that  an  idol  stood  upon 
that  spot,  but  it  has  no  bearing  to  show  that  the  spot 
was  the  true  sepulchre. "  ^  "  Indeed,  the  whole  tenor 
of  the  language  both  of  Eusebius  and  Constantine 
goes  to  show  that  the  discovery  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre was  held  to  be  the  result  not  of  a  previous 
knowledge  derived  from  tradition,  but  of  a  super- 
natural interposition  and  revelation, "  ^  "The  al- 
leged discovery  of  them  (Calvary  and  the  Tomb)  by  the 
aged  and  credulous  Helena,  like  her  discovery  of  the 
cross,  may  not  have  been  improbably  the  work  of  pious 
fraud.  It  would,  perhaps,  not  be  doing  injustice  to 
the  Bishop  Macarius  and  his  clergy  if  we  regard  the 
whole  as  a  well-laid  and  successful  plan  for  restoring 
to  Jerusalem  its  former  consideration,  and  elevating 
the  See  to  a  higher  degree  of  influence  and  dignity. ' '  ^ 
Here,  for  a  moment,  we  must  part  company  with 
Robinson.  Eusebius,  indeed,  in  ascribing  motives  to 
the  builders  of  the  shrine  of  Aphrodite,  appears  to 
be  employing  ex  post  facto  reasoning.  His  narrative 
has  no  scientific  bearing  to  show  that  the  spot  en- 
shrined the  true  Sepulchre  of  Christ.  It  does  not 
prove  that  Constantine  was  acting  on  correct  infor- 

'I,  p.  41M;   ff.  iii,  pp.  257  fF.     Tlu'  italics  are  Kobinson's. 
'I,  p.  414.  'I,  p.  418. 


218  PALESTINE   EXPLORATION 

mation.  But  it  does  imply  that  Eusebius  believed 
that  the  Emperor  was  acting  upon  some  sort  of  in- 
formation. 1  The  phrases  showing  that  Constantine 
was  moved  by  Divine  Intimation,  held  by  Robinson 
to  indicate  that  the  discovery  was  regarded  as  the 
result  of  a  supernatural  interposition  and  revelation, 
apply  strictly  only  to  the  work  of  purification  and 
construction.  Later  writers,  indeed,  represent  the 
search  as  having  been  guided  by  such  influences,  but 
had  there  been  no  question  of  tradition  or  no  tradition, 
these  phrases  of  Eusebius  would  not  necessarily  have 
been  held  to  mean  other  than  that  Constantine  was 
moved  to  a  good  work  by  Divine  Providence.  Dr. 
Robinson  might  have  said  the  same  of  his  own 
researches ! 

Eusebius 's  affirmation  that  the  discovery  was  held 
to  have  been  ' '  beyond  all  hope, ' '  Robinson  would 
find  inappropriate  if  applied  to  a  spot  ' '  definitely 
known  and  marked  by  long  tradition."  Well,  so  it 
would  be.  But  our  exegesis  of  Eusebius 's  narrative 
necessarily  involves  no  more  than  the  existence  of 
some  sort  of  a  tradition.  That  it  was  not  generally 
known,  at  least  not  generally  credited,  is  suggested 
by  the  statement  ascribing  Constantino's  foresight 
as  to  what  was  going  to  happen  to  ' '  superior  intel- 
ligence." That  it  was  not  even  known  to  Eusebius 
ten  years  previous  to  the  alleged  recovery  is  sug- 
gested by  his  silence  regarding  it  when,  in  315,  he 
mentioned  another  tradition  placing  the  site  of  the 
Ascension  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  whither  pilgrims 

^  Possibly  Robinson  might  have  conceded  this  point,  liolding,  how- 
ever, that  said  information  was  labricated  Ijy  the  clergy. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  219 

flocked  to  worship  from  all  parts  of  the  earth,  i  Euse- 
bius  does  not  refer  to  Helena's  agency  in  the  matter, 
but  later  writers  represent  her  excavations  as  being 
the  result  of  "diligent  inquiry."  As  an  excavator 
I  can  enter  into  the  feelings  of  those  who,  having 
staked  their  hopes  upon  a  given  site,  hopes  based 
either  upon  diligent  inquiry  or  upon  some  dubious 
historical  indication,  labor  day  after  day  in  removing 
layer  after  layer  of  debris  without  striking  the  desired 
object,  and  then,  when  at  last  this  appears  to  be  found, 
exclaim :  ' '  This  certainly  was  beyond  all  hope ! ' ' 

Some  sort  of  tradition,  then,  I  think  may  be  le- 
gitimately inferred  from  Eusebius's  account.  The 
value  of  such  a  tradition,  however,  is  quite  another 
matter.  Against  its  authority,  supposing  it  to  have 
existed,  Dr.  Robinson  argues  clearly  and,  it  seems 
to  me,  decisively  from  analogy  with  a  tradition  of 
"precisely  the  same  character  and  import,"  which 
is  known  to  have  been  believed  ten  years  before  the 
journey  of  Helena,  namely,  the  tradition  respecting 
the  place  of  the  Ascension,  to  which  we  have  just 
referred.  This  actual  tradition,  says  Robinson, 
though  its  claims  to  credibility  can  be  supported  by 
all  the  arguments  used  in  favor  of  the  supposed  tradi- 
tion respecting  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  is  itself  unques- 
tionably false,  since  it  is  contradicted  by  the  express 
declaration  of  Luke,  who  states  that  Jesus  led  out 
His  disciples  as  far  as  Bethany,  and  while  He  blessed 
them  He  was  parted  from  them  and  carried  up  into 
Heaven.  2 

Have  we  not,  after  all,  come  back  very  close  to 

'  Kuscbius,  I)t*monstr.  Evang. ,  7,4.  'I,  p.  41G. 


220  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

Robinson?  Is  there  much  difference  between  an  ob- 
scure and  discredited  tradition,  such  as  we  postulate, 
and  his  view  of  no  tradition?  Little  difference  as 
affecting  the  genuineness  of  the  site,  but  great  dif- 
ference as  affecting  the  reputation  of  the  good 
Bishop  Macarius.  The  phrase  "pious  fraud  "  sep- 
arates us  still.  ^  Take  it  back.  Dr.  Robinson !  The 
finely  written  manuscript  of  your  Researches,  brought 
out  from  the  Archives  of  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  lies  open  before  me,  at  the  very  page  con- 
taining your  accusation.  I  seem  to  hear  your  voice 
speaking  to  me,  as  it  spoke  to  students  of  this  school 
years  and  years  ago.  Bid  me  tell  your  students, 
born  since  you  were  translated,  that  the  accusation 
is  withdrawn,  and  that  you  have  made  your  peace 
with  Macarius. 

We  cannot  leave  the  journeyings  of  our  Union 
professor  without  instancing  his  powers  of  endur- 
ance, his  admirable  pluck,  and  his  just  as  admirable 
prudence.  On  the  day  when  he  first  entered  Je- 
rusalem at  6  P.M.,  he  had  left  Dhoheriyeh  at  quarter 
past  two  in  the  morning,  he  had  taken  a  ramble 
through  the  streets  of  Hebron,  and  he  had  been  on 
a  camel  for  nearly  sixteen  hours.     And  yet  at  nine 

'  There  remains,  of  course,  the  matter  of  the  "  Invention  of  the 
Cross."  But  whether  Macarius  had  any  cognizance  of  this  is  not 
proven,  as  the  first  explicit  reference  to  it  is  hj  Bisliop  Cyril,  who  at 
the  time  of  Helena's  journey  was  only  eleven  years  old.  Even 
granting  that  this  closely  followed  on  to  the  discovery  of  the  alleged 
Holy  Sepulchre,  we  must  also  grant  that  from  the  sudden  realization 
of  expectations  which  had  been  described  as  •'  beyond  all  hope  "  a 
credulous  age  might  easily  iiave  evolved  a  belief  which  would 
differ  essentially  Ix-cause  morally  from  the  "  well-laid  and  success- 
ful plan  "  of  a  "  pious  fraud." 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  221 

o'clock  the  next  day  he  was  in  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  witnessing  the  Easter  ceremonies. 
No  wonder  that  after  the  tense  strain  of  three  and 
a  half  months  he  was  taken,  at  the  close  of  the  first 
journey,  with  an  illness  that  almost  cost  him  his  life 
at  Vienna.  No  wonder  that  an  impending  illness 
cut  short  his  exploration  of  Northern  Syria  in  1852. 
The  intense  strain  was  not  only  one  of  fatigue,  but 
of  excitement,  if  not  of  actual  danger.  From  the 
matter-of-fact  narrative  of  Dr.  Robinson  we  can  re- 
construct for  ourselves  a  series  of  pictures  of  his 
Petra  adventures.  We  can  see  him  quietly  strolling 
about,  taking  notes  on  the  monuments,  while  Dr. 
Smith  is  dealing  with  the  demands  of  the  local 
Sheikh  for  tribute  money,  accentuated  by  the  firing 
of  guns  and  the  drawing  of  swords.  We  can  see 
the  travellers  riding  off,  not  a  para  the  poorer, 
though  they  know  that  now  the  ascent  of  Mt.  Hor 
must  be  given  up.  We  can  see  the  aged  Sheikh  fol- 
lowing them,  declaring  that  their  good-will  is  better 
than  money,  and  begging  them  to  make  the  ascent 
on  any  terms  they  please.  And  finally  we  can  see 
them  continuing  tranquilly  on  their  journey  back  to 
Jerusalem,  having  lost  the  view  from  Mt.  Hor,  but 
having  decided,  once  out  of  the  old  man's  clutches, 
not  to  place  themselves  in  his  power  again. 

Robinson,  as  has  been  frequently  intimated,  re- 
garded his  researches  in  Palestine  merely  as  pre- 
paratory to  a  systematic  work  on  the  Physical  and 
Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land.  This  he 
actually  began  after  his  first  journey,  following  a 
scheme  abandoned  later,  when  his  second  journey  had 


222  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

furnished  him  with  new  data.  His  new  plan  was  to 
cover  the  ground  in  two  volumes :  Vol.  I. ,  The  Cen- 
tral Region — Palestine  with  Lebanon  and  Sinai. 
Vol.  II.,  Outlying  Countries.  Vol.  I,  certainly  and 
Vol.  II.  probably  were  to  have  been  divided  into 
three  parts — Physical  Geography,  Historical  Geogra- 
phy and  Topographical  Geography.  Realizing  the 
vast  scope  of  this  scheme,  he  felt  that  others  might 
have  to  carry  it  out  to  completion,  but  volume  first 
he  hoped  to  finish.  "But,"  writes  his  wife  in  the 
preface  to  the  posthumous  publication,  "  it  was 
otherwise  decreed  above ;  and  a  comparatively  small 
portion — thorough  and  complete  in  itself,  however, 
without  a  missing  note,  without  the  omission  of  a 
single  word  to  be  subsequently  inserted — is  all  that 
is  left  to  the  world  from  the  hand  of  the  earnest, 
faithful  investigator. ' '  ^  The  portion  written  and 
published  was  only  the  first  division — Physical  Geog- 
raphy— of  Vol.  I.,  and  this  only  so  far  as  it  applied 
to  Palestine  proper.  Even  this  part  was  not  com- 
pleted, as  chapters  relating  to  the  Flora  and  Fauna 
are  missing.  As  an  appendix  there  is  inserted  an 
Essay  called  "  The  Physical  Geography  of  Syria 
Proper,"  which  formed  the  commencement  of  his 
work  on  Biblical  Geography  according  to  the  original 
plan. 

Referring  to  this  uncompleted  work  in  his  speech 
before  the  New  York  Historical  Society,  February  3, 
1863,  Dr.  Hitchcock  said:  "There  lives  no  man  to 
finish  it;  and  when  one  shall  be  born  to  do  it,   God 

'  Physical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land.     By  Edward  Robinson. 

Boston.  l.sr,5. 


EDWARD  ROBINSON  223 

only  knows,"  God,  who  made  Man  in  His  own 
Image,  never  makes  any  man  in  the  exact  image  of 
his  fellow.  Robinson's  book  has  never  been  com- 
pleted on  the  lines  which  he  laid  down,  but,  while 
Dr.  Hitchcock  was  speaking,  a  Scotch  lad,  barely 
seven  years  old,  was  beginning  the  studies  which  in 
later  days  led  him  into  the  great  region  opened  up 
by  the  American  Pioneer.  George  Adam  Smith's 
"Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land"  has  not  the 
mass  of  systematized  detail  that  would  have  charac- 
terized the  vast  work  planned  by  Robinson,  but  the 
power  to  illustrate  the  interaction  of  forces,  physical 
and  historical,  a  subject  requiring  not  only  knowl- 
edge based  on  personal  investigation  and  wide  read- 
ing, but  a  handling  at  once  vigorous,  subtle,  and 
sympathetic,  is  all  his  own.  On  him  willingly  would 
Robinson  have  cast  his  mantle. 


LECTURE   VI 

RENAN   AND   HIS   CONTEMPORARIES 

The  attempt  to  cover  in  a  single  lecture  the  inter- 
val between  1838  and  1865 — the  interval  between 
the  earlier  journey  of  Robinson,  the  first  scientific 
explorer  of  Palestine,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  the  first  scientific  soci- 
ety devoted  to  the  study  of  the  Holy  Land — presents 
many  difficulties.  In  a  postscript  to  a  later  edition 
of  his  ' '  Sinai  and  Palestine, ' '  referring  to  a  second 
journey  taken  in  1862,  nine  years  after  his  first  visit, 
Dean  Stanley  says:  "In  these  same  nine  years  the 
geography  of  Palestine  has  been  almost  rewritten. 
Not  only  have  new  discoveries  been  made  in  almost 
every  part  (with  which  I  have  hardly  been  able  to 
keep  pace  in  the  correction  of  my  successive  editions), 
but  the  historical  and  topographical  details  of  the 
subject  have  been  worked  up  in  a  far  more  com- 
plete form  than  any  to  which  I  can  lay  claim." 
An  explanation  of  the  Dean's  somewhat  sweep- 
ing statement  as  to  the  progress  effected  during 
those  nine  years  illustrates  our  difficulty  in  dealing 
with  the  longer  period  under  review.  Robinson's 
methods  of  investigation  were  followed  by  scores 
of    other    travellers    in    considering    one    point    or 


RENAN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        225 

another,  1  but  followed,  as  a  rule,  unsystematically  as 
applied  to  the  country  at  large.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  period  stands  Tobler,  at  the  end  Guerin,  both 
general  investigators  on  the  grand  scale  and  of  the 
first  class.  Between  these  names  the  claim  to  dis- 
tinction is  earned  by  specialists  in  the  various  fields  of 
science,  not  by  general  investigators.  These  indeed 
are  not  wanting.  In  ' '  The  Land  and  the  Book, ' '  Dr. 
Thomson,  resident  missionary  in  the  land  for  a  great 
part  of  his  active  life,  transcribed  the  observations 
made  during  constant  tours,  ^  but  his  work  was  de- 
signed, so  frankly  states  the  author,  ' '  for  general  and 
popular  reading,  rather  than  for  the  professional  stu- 
dent."  Biblical  illustration  was  its  declared  pur- 
pose, and  hence  almost  one-half  of  its  pages,  in  the 
early  edition,  is  devoted  to  folk-lore.  De  Saulcy's 
name  is  more  connected  with  his  excavations  at  the 
so-called  Tombs  of  the  Kings  than  with  the  discrim- 
inating notes  jotted  down  during  his  rapid  journeys. 
Van  de  Velde  indeed  criss-crossed  over  the  country 
pretty  thoroughly  when  making  what  was  one  of  the 
best  route-surveys  extant  before  the  work  of  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  But  his  often  shrewd 
observations  are  almost  buried  in  his  report  of  per- 
sonal adventures,  conversations  with  his  guide,  and 
pious  ejaculation,  sometimes  taking  the  form  of  apos- 
trophe of  biblical  characters !    Porter  shows  a  similar 

'  The  ratio  of  increase  of  books  on  Palestine  after  the  third  dec- 
ade of  the  last  century  may  be  gathered  from  Kohricht's  IJlbliog- 
raphy,  which  claims  to  be  inclusive  from  ad.  .'538  to  1878.  In 
his  list,  comprising  3,515  names,  Robinson's  number  is  1,880. 

'■^  Kenan  credits  Tiiomson  with  being  the  most  extensive  traveller 
in  Palestine. 


226  PALEST  I XE  EXPLORATION 

lack  of  scientific  method.  In  the  vahiable  work  of 
Dr.  Sepp,  too,  we  find  fact  and  fancy  blending  in  a 
popular  style,  grievous  to  those  who  prefer  their 
science  undiluted.  Taken  together,  the  works  of  these 
writers — and  indeed  of  many  others — form  a  mine  of 
topographical  and  other  information,  but  to  extract 
the  ore  often  requires  the  patience  of  a  miner. 

With  no  dogmatic  assertion  that  it  is  the  best,  the 
plan  we  shall  adopt  in  following  the  development  of 
Palestine  Exploration,  from  Robinson  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  is,  after 
acknowledging  the  claims  of  Tobler  and  Guerin,  to 
pass  over  the  names  of  lesser  travellers  and  to  pro- 
ceed to  a  review  of  the  specialists  eminently  charac- 
teristic of  the  period,  including  a  few  representative 
writers  on  questions  concerning  Jerusalem  in  that 
long  line  of  special  pleaders  in  the  controversy  re- 
garding traditional  sites  started  by  the  heterodoxy 
of  Robinson ;  as  well  as  the  specialists  in  the  depart- 
ments of  archaeology,  architecture,  and  the  natural 
sciences.  Among  these  especial  prominence  is  given 
to  Renan,  the  first  Syrian  excavator  on  a  large  scale. 

It  was  as  a  result  of  a  pleasure  trip,  taken  in 
Palestine  in  1835,  that  Dr.  Titus  Tobler  was  fired 
with  the  ambition  to  become  a  scientific  explorer. 
On  his  return  to  Germany  he  began  to  prepare  him- 
self for  a  second  visit  by  mastering  all  the  literature 
concerning  the  history  of  the  Holy  Land  and  of  its 
actual  exploration  up  to  date.  But  even  while  this 
German  scholar  was  fitting  himself  to  be  a  pioneer, 
Robinson  appeared  on  the  field  and  reaped  the  first 
harvest  for  America.     Much,  however,  remained  to 


REN  AN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES         227 

be  accomplished.  During  a  period  of  twenty  weeks, 
in  1845-46,  Tobler  conducted  a  fuller  study  of  Je- 
rusalem and  its  environs  than  was  possible  in  the 
much  shorter  time  devoted  to  this  region  by  his  pred- 
ecessor. Unlike  the  latter,  whose  Protestant  prej- 
udices kept  him  away  from  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  he  furnished  a  clear  and  thorough  descrip- 
tion of  its  compHcated  construction.  The  topo- 
graphical features  of  the  city,  its  walls  and  gates, 
its  chief  buildings,  ancient  and  modern — mosques, 
synagogues,  churches — are  treated  with  detail  in  the 
first  volume  of  the  chief  work  resulting  from  this 
campaign.  1  In  the  second  volume  the  same  method 
is  applied,  first  to  the  immediate  surroundings  of 
the  Holy  City,  and  next,  to  that  part  of  Judea  ex- 
tending from  Jaffa  to  the  Jordan,  from  Solomon's 
Pools  to  Bethel.  About  seventy  sites  are  described 
in  alphabetical  order.  Like  Robinson,  he  supple- 
ments an  account  of  present  conditions  by  the  history 
of  each  place  as  far  as  it  is  known.  The  value  of  the 
work  as  a  book  of  reference  is  enhanced  by  the  sup- 
pression of  the  personal  element,  the  free  indulgence 
of  which  on  the  part  of  other  writers  aroused  his 
scorn.  In  a  third  journey,  taken  in  1857,  the  same 
methods  were  employed  in  a  more  extended  examina- 
tion of  Judea. 2  Returning  again  in  1865,  Tobler 
planned  the  exploration  of  Nazareth.  Cholera  pre- 
vented his  actual  visit  to  the  spot,  but,  nevertheless, 

'  Zwc'i  Hiichcr  Topographic  von  Jerusalem  und  seinen  Umge- 
bungen.  lierlin,  \H'>'A.  For  special  nionogrriphs  resulting  from 
this  journey,  see  Roliricht. 

'  See  Dritte  Wanderuug  nach  Paliistina  im  Jahre  1857.  Gotha, 
IB.yj. 


228  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

by  careful  inquiry  from  authoritative  sources  he  was 
able  to  produce  a  detailed  monograph  on  this  site. 
Here  is  no  place  for  more  than  reference  to  his  vast 
literary  labor  in  distinction  to  the  record  of  his  per- 
sonal work.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  separate  the 
two  forms  of  activity.  To  the  editorship  of  the 
texts  dealing  with  pilgrim-travel,  which  engaged 
him  till  his  death  in  1877,  he  brought  a  knowledge 
that  could  have  been  gained  only  by  an  experience 
of  the  Holy  Land  itself. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  the  scientific  ex- 
ploration of  Palestine,  America  was  followed  by  Ger- 
many, Germany  by  France,  and  France  by  England. 
Guerin  forms  part  of  the  great  quartette  completed 
by  the  names  of  Robinson,  Tobler,  and  Conder.  The 
range  of  his  experiences  in  Palestine,  extending, 
with  long  interruptions,  over  a  period  of  twenty- 
three  years,  permits  us  to  call  him  a  contemporary  of 
the  other  three  members.  The  year  of  his  first  visit, 
1852,  was  the  date  of  Robinson's  second  journey. 
During  his  last  visit,  in  1875,  Conder  was  actually 
engaged  on  the  Survey.  His  intermediate  explora- 
tions alternated  with  those  of  Tobler,  though  the 
two  were  not  in  the  country  together.  ^     The  work 

'  H.  V.  Guerin  was  five  times  in  Palestine.  In  1852  he  travelled 
only  along  the  grand  routes ;  in  1854  he  occasionally  broke  away 
from  the  traditional  paths.  His  great  work,  in  seven  volumes, 
Description  Geographique,  Hi^torique,  et  Archeologique  de  la 
Palestine,  was  the  result  of  three  special  missions,  with  which  he 
was  charged  by  the  Mini.ster  of  Public  Instruction,  conducted  in 
1863,  1870,  and  1875,  and  dealing  respectively  with  Judea,  Samaria, 
and  Galilee.  Jerusalem  was  treated  in  a  separate  volume.  Guerin's 
record  is  in  itinerary  form,  but  his  personal  cxin'rieiR'c.s  are  sup- 
prfs.«od,  except  in  casus  where  they  serve  to  illustrate  the  stale  of 
the  land. 


REX  AN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        229 

of  these  four  men  shows  a  logical  progression. 
Robinson  established  the  correct  principles  of  re- 
search. Tobler  applied  these  more  minutely,  but 
over  a  limited  geographical  range.  Guerin  endeav- 
ored with  the  same  minuteness  to  cover  the  whole 
field — Judea,  Samaria,  Galilee — but  was  subjected 
to  the  limitations  of  an  explorer  travelling  singly  and 
with  straitened  resources.  Conder,  heading  a  Sur- 
vey expedition  adequately  manned  and  splendidly 
equipped,  was  enabled  to  fill  in  the  numerous  topo- 
graphical lacuncB  left  by  his  predecessors. 

To  compare  Guerin 's  map  with  that  resulting  from 
such  a  Survey  would  be  manifestly  absurd.  But  one 
may  fairly  judge  of  the  extent  of  his  geographical 
material  and  of  the  character  of  his  archaeological 
observations  by  comparing  his  ' '  Description  de  la 
Palestine ' '  with  the  ' '  Memoirs ' '  of  the  Survey. 
For  example,  opening  Vol.  III.  of  the  latter  (Judea) 
at  the  pages  dealing  with  the  archaeology  of  sites 
on  sheets  xxi  and  xxii  of  the  great  map,  we  note  a 
large  number  of  names  of  minor  ruins  not  known  to 
Guerin.  This  is  not  surprising;  but  it  certainly  is 
surprising  to  find  that  at  least  nine  names  on  the 
lists  are  there  by  virtue  of  Guerin 's  notes,  and  do 
not  occur  on  the  Fund's  map,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  they  were  not  found  by  the  Survey  officers. 
Again,  in  at  least  twenty  cases  (still  in  connection 
with  these  two  sheets)  the  brief  notes  of  the  latter 
are  supplemented  by  quotations  from  the  fuller  de- 
scriptions of  Guerin.  Thus,  in  regard  to  Khurbet 
Me j del  Baa',  a  ruin  some  nine  miles  southwest  of 
Hebron,  the  Survey  notes  are  limited  to  the  following 


230  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

catalogue,  scarcely  differentiating  the  ruins  from 
scores  of  others:  "Walls,  a  reservoir,  caves,  and 
rough  cave-tombs.  An  ancient  road  leads  to  it." 
According  to  Guerin,  a  stone  building,  constructed 
of  great  blocks  for  the  most  part  rudely  squared  and 
roughly  embossed,  crowns  the  hill  like  a  fort ;  round 
about  several  houses  are  still  standing;  columns  lie 
prostrate  ;  everywhere  the  sides  of  the  hill  are 
pierced  with  cisterns  and  vast  caverns,  and  so  on 
through  a  description  of  125  words,  which  gives  a 
little  individuality  to  Me j del  Baa'  and  illustrates  the 
patience  of  the  author  in  examining  uninteresting 
sites.  On  the  other  hand,  the  next  ruin  in  Guerin 's 
itinerary,  Khurbet  'Aziz,  described  by  him  in  a  few 
lines,  is  accorded  over  two  pages  in  the  Survey's 
folio,  with  general  measurements  of  buildings,  ma- 
sonry details,  etc.  Thus  admirably  do  the  two  works 
complement  each  other. 

But  in  examining  the  ruins  of  Palestine,  Guerin, 
equally  with  the  officers  of  the  Fund,  lacked  the  clew 
to  chronology  furnished  by  the  subsequent  studies 
of  ancient  pottery  which  were  inaugurated  by  the 
excavations  of  Fhnders  Petrie  at  Lachish.^  To  the 
initiated  an  examination  of  the  sherds  strewn  over 
the  surface  of  a  mound  may  indicate  the  date  of  its 
abandonment.  In  cuttings,  made  for  one  purpose 
or  another  at  its  base,  may  be  found  other  sherds, 
which  throw  light  on  the  period  of  the  first  occupa- 

'  Conder  states  that  he  had  seven  years'  experience  of  pottery  of 
every  age  in  Palestine  and  always  examined  that  found  at  the  ruins. 
His  observations,  however,  are  rarely  recorded.  They  aj)ppar  not  to 
have  led  him  beyond  a  recognition  of  the  broad  distinction  l)et\vccn 
"ancient  pottery  "  and  "Roman  or  Byzantine."  See  Q.  S.  1890, 
p.  329. 


RENAN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        231 

tion  of  the  site.  In  cases  where  the  lowest  stratum 
is  exposed  at  no  point,  certain  general  inferences  as 
to  the  duration  of  occupation  may  often  be  gathered 
by  estimating  the  total  amount  of  debris.  To  the 
explorer  before  Petrie  the  amount  of  debris  had 
hardly  more  meaning  than  the  pottery.  Guerin, 
describing  the  lofty  hill  of  Tell-el-Hesy,  identified 
by  Conder  with  Lachish,  does  not  discriminate  be- 
tween the  natural  bluff  and  the  sixty  feet  of  super- 
imposed accumulation,  the  result  of  many  centuries 
of  alternate  construction  and  destruction.  He  did 
not  know  that  the  ruins  of  mud-brick  dwellings  may 
counterfeit  the  appearance  of  the  soil  itself.  Other- 
wise he  could  hardly  have  made  the  statement,  so 
subversive  of  the  doctrine  of  the  indestructibility  of 
matter,  that  important  cities  have  been  not  only 
entirely  razed,  but,  as  it  were,  effaced  from  the  soil. 
Condor's  identification  of  Lachish  with  Tell-el-Hesy 
was  correct,  but  it  was  based  on  topographic  and 
onomastic  arguments.  On  similar  grounds  he  placed 
Eglon  at  Khurbet '  Ajlan — an  identification  absolutely 
contradicted  by  the  extent  and  character  of  the  debris. 
The  work  of  Guerin  and  Conder  in  collecting  names 
of  ruins  and  in  correctly  locating  these  was  of  prime 
value,  but  this  might  have  been  doubled  had  they 
possessed  the  simple  key  to  chronology — the  only 
key  available  in  the  case  of  ruins  uncharacterized  by 
known  architectural  features — which  may  be  found 
by  comparing  the  surface  pottery  with  the  amount 
of  accumulation.  Here  is  no  adverse  criticism.  It 
is  only  saying  in  other  words  that  the  development 
of  Palestine  Exploration  would  have  been  more  rapid 


232  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

had  the  general  Survey  been  preceded  by  a  particular 
examination  of  a  few  important  mounds  by  excava- 
tion. And  in  the  logic  of  events  this  was  hardly  to 
have  been  expected.  ^ 

We  may  now  glance  at  the  extraordinary  mani- 
festation of  interest  in  the  topography  of  Jerusalem 
incited  by  the  publication  of  Robinson's  heterodox 
views  in  1840.  Robinson  had  confined  himself  to 
proving  to  his  own  satisfaction  that  the  traditional 
site  of  Calvary  and  the  Tomb  of  Christ  could  not  be 
correct.  Inborn  conservatism  prevented  his  pro- 
posing a  rival  site.  But  in  1842  such  a  site  was 
actually  put  forward  by  Otto  Thenius,^  namely,  the 
hill  el-Heidhemiyeh  to  the  north  of  the  city,  now 
popularly  called  Gordon's  Calvary,  in  consequence  of 
his  strong  adherence  to  this  theory.  Shortly  after, 
Dr.  George  Williams,  Fellow  of  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, appeared  in  the  field,  claiming  to  be  the  first 
modern  traveller  to  put  in  a  plea  for  ancient  Jerusa- 
lem traditions  against  modern  objections.  His  zeal 
outran  his  sense  of  courtesy.  In  the  preface  to  the 
second  edition  of  his  ' '  Holy  City  ' '  he  tells  us  that 
he  had  expunged  the  ' '  harsh  insinuations  and  per- 
sonal reflections  on  Dr.  Robinson,"  to  whom  he  had 
already  apologized  in  private.^     Schultz,   for  three 

'  For  an  elaboration  of  this  tlienie,  see  Lecture  VIII. 

«  In  the  Zeitschrift  fur  d.  Hist.  TheoL,  1842. 

'  See  The  Holy  City  :  Historical,  Topographical,  and  Anti- 
quarian Notices  of  Jerusalem  by  George  Williams,  B.  D.  Second 
Edition,  London,  1849.  The  Su{)pleinent  to  Vol.  I  contains  an 
interesting  commentary  on  the  plan  of  the  city  made  in  1840,  after 
the  bombardment  of  Acre,  by  the  Royal  Engineers,  Alderson  and 
Aldricli,  as  part  of  the  (Jrdiiance  Survey  of  the  country  from  the 
Urontes  to  the  Dead  Sea. 


REN  AN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        233 

years  German  Consul  in  the  Holy  City,  took  a  like 
conservative  position,  i  So  also  did  Krafft.^  But 
Dr.  Williams,  carrying  the  war  into  his  own  camp, 
says  that  the  former's  claim  to  have  reached  his  con- 
clusions independently  of  Krafft  and  himself  is  not 
justified. 

The  next  heavy  gun  was  fired  by  Fergusson  at 
long  range,  for  this  prince  among  arm-chair  critics  had 
never  visited  Palestine.  The  most  radical  disbelievers 
in  the  traditional  site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  had  never 
doubted  that  the  buildings  surrounding  it  occupied 
the  place  of  Constantine's  constructions.  Fergusson 
maintained,  mainly  on  architectural  grounds — though 
he  backed  his  arguments  by  interpreting  or  rather 
misinterpreting  in  his  favor  the  topographical  notices 
of  the  Bordeaux  Pilgrim — that  the  so-called  Mosque 
of  Omar  was  built  by  the  Byzantine  Emperor  on  the 
site  which  he  believed  to  cover  the  Lord's  Tomb,  and 
that  the  site,  as  a  "  holy  place, ' '  was  transferred 
from  the  Eastern  to  the  Western  Hill  some  seventy 
years  before  the  entry  of  the  Crusaders.  His  deal- 
ing with  the  apparent  difficulties  of  this  assumed 
transference  is  delightfully  simple.  Standing  firm 
on  his  "indisputable  arguments"  that  Constantino 
must  have  built  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  he  says :  "I 
myself  have  very  little  hope  of  any  great  success 
being  attained  in  elucidating  the  history  of  this 
transaction ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  appears  of  the 
least  possible  consequence  whether  it  is  obtained  or 
not.     If  Constantino  built  the  Dome  of  the  Rock,  the 

'Jerusalem:    Him.-  \'urli'.siinj^,      1845. 
*  Die  Topograpliie  Jerusalonis.      1845. 


234  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

fact  of  the  transference  is  certain,  and  the  motive  is 
only  too  clear.  It  was  done  because  it  had  become 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  Jerusalem  in  the  eleventh  century.  They 
were  forcibly  dispossessed  of  their  own  church  on 
the  Eastern  Hill,  and  they  of  necessity  erected  one 
on  the  only  available  site  on  the  Western  Hill,  and 
there,  in  consequence,  we  now  find  it.  It  may  be 
unfortunate  that  this  should  be  so,  but  I  can  see  no 
reason  why  the  fact  should  not  be  acknowledged  if  it 
can  be  proved !  "  i    Could  special  pleading  further  go? 

Fergusson's  disappointment  that  Robinson,  the 
great  sceptic  in  regard  to  the  so-called  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, did  not  "hail  with  enthusiasm  the  view  that 
an  alternative  had  been  found, ' '  but  rather  ' '  was 
the  first  to  turn  upon  "  its  discoverer,  led  him  into 
reprisals,  characteristic  of  all  war,  holy  or  otherwise. 
After  accusing  the  American  explorer  of  garbling 
the  text  of  Eusebius  in  the  interests  of  his  own 
arguments,  he  adds:  "He  knew,  of  course,  that  he 
was  stating  what  was  not  true  when  he  put  these 
words  into  the  mouth  of  Eusebius,  and  it  seems  all 
the  more  strange  that  he  should  have  condescended 
to  do  this,  as  he  had  not  even  the  excuse  of  religious 
zeal  to  justify  his  misrepresentations. "  2  In  such 
manner  raged  the  battle  over  the  grave  of  the  Prince 
of  Peace. 

In  1855  was  published  a  work  called  "  Antient 
Jerusalem,"  in  which  the  author,  J.  F.  Thrupp, 

'  The  Tcinpli'S  of  tlio  Jews,  by  James  Fergusson  ;  p.  x,  Preface. 
His  pceiiliar  views  were  first  proniiilf^ated  iu  Au  Essay  on  the  An- 
cient Topos^raphy  of  Jerusalem,  1847. 

'  Ibid.,  p.  I'JG. 


EENAN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES       235 

strongly  advocated  a  revolutionary  theory,  already 
advanced  by  Fergusson.  He  maintained  that  the 
earlier  or  true  Zion  which  the  Bible  identifies  with 
the  City  of  David  ' '  was  none  other  than  the  Temple 
Hill,  now  occupied  by  the  Haram-esh-Sherif ;  that  the 
old  Jebusite  stronghold  or  Castle  stood  on  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  hill  and  formed  the  original  nucleus 
of  the  City  of  David,  and  that  after  the  building  of 
the  Temple,  which  occupied  the  southern  part  of  the 
present  Haram  area,  the  terms  Zion  and  the  City  of 
David  were  sometimes  used  in  a  larger  sense  so  as 
to  include  the  Temple ;  sometimes  in  a  more  confined 
sense  to  denote  only  the  original  city  or  the  buildings 
to  the  north  of  the  Temple  "  (pp.  12  ff.)-  He  holds 
that  the  identification  of  Zion  with  the  City  of  David 
obtained  through  the  time  of  the  Jewish  Monarchy, 
but  that,  for  the  Maccabees,  Zion  was  probably  on 
the  "Western  Hill.  This  erroneous  identification  was 
probably  handed  down  to  the  early  pilgrims,  and 
later  transmitted  without  break  to  modern  times. 
Thrupp's  arguments  made  little  immediate  impres- 
sion, and  appear  later  to  have  been  quite  overlooked. 
The  Encyclopsedia  Biblica  in  its  list  of  modern  sup- 
porters of  the  general  theory  ^ — a  list  which  includes 
many  notable  scholars — appears  to  regard  W.  F. 
Birch,  1878,  as  its  first  advocate.  We  may  note 
that  Thrupp  supported  his  view  by  the  same  argu- 
ments that  are  used  to-day,  quoting  the  to})ographical 
passages  of  Nehemiah  and  the  reference  in  H  Chron. 
32,  30  to  the  engineering  works  of  Hezekiah,  in 
connection  with  the  Ui)])er  Spring  of  Gihon. 

'  That  is,  the  pluchig  of  Zion  at  some  point  on  the  Eastern  Hill. 


236  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

The  name  of  M.  de  Saulcy  is  best  known  in  con- 
nection with  his  excavations  at  the  so-called  Tombs 
of  the  Kings,  to  the  north  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  in- 
terests of  the  identification  assumed  by  the  name, 
but  disputed  by  most  critics,  beginning  with  Pococke. 
De  Saulcy 's  partisanship  of  the  earlier  tradition  dates 
from  his  first  visit  to  Jerusalem  in  1850-51,  when  he 
discovered  in  the  tombs  several  Hds  of  sarcophagi. 
In  the  autumn  of  1863  he  returned,  armed  with  a 
Turkish  permit  to  excavate.  Uncovering  the  broad 
steps  leading  down  to  the  great  Court,  he  found  in 
the  latter  a  stone  fragment  which  he  took  to  be  part 
of  the  propitiatory  monument  erected  by  Herod  after 
the  abortive  attempt  to  recover  treasure,  and  subse- 
quently persuaded  himself  that  he  had  discovered  the 
place  where  this  had  stood.  Within  the  sepulchre 
he  found  a  sarcophagus  inscribed  with  the  name  of  a 
queen,  which  he  suggested  might  be  that  of  Zede- 
kiah's  wife.  Notwithstanding  the  eloquence  with 
which  he  plead  his  cause,  the  fact  that  the  most  ele- 
mentary topographical  arguments  are  against  it  de- 
prived him  of  adherents.! 

The  esteem  in  which  de  Vogiie's  Jerusalem  labors 
are  held  is  shown  by  the  following  quotation  from 
the  paper  entitled  ' '  The  History  of  Jerusalem  Ex- 
ploration ' '  found  in  the  Survey  volumes  of  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund :  ' '  The  work  of  the 
modern  explorers  has  in  great  measure  rendered 
obsolete  the  writings  of  all  their  predecessors,  with 
the  exception  of  the  learned  Robinson  and  the  scien- 

'  Sec   De  Saulny's  Voyaq-c'  aiitour  de  la  Mcr  Murtn  ot  dans  los 
Terres  Dibliques,  185;5 ;  and  Voya^'e  en  Terre  Sainto,  1805. 


REN  AN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES         237 

tific  work  of  de  Vogiie."  The  latter's  architectural 
labors  in  Jerusalem  and  vicinity  were  begun  in  1854, 
when  he  made  studies  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  of  the  Basilica  at  Bethlehem,  and  of  sev- 
eral other  churches.  They  were  continued  in  1862, 
after  the  completion  of  his  mission  to  the  'Hauran 
and  Northern  Syria,  by  a  minute  investigation  of  the 
Haram.  The  results  of  these  studies  were  published 
in  "  Les  :6glises  de  la  Terre  Sainte  "  (1860)  and  ''  Le 
Temple  de  Jerusalem"  (1864),  two  magnificently 
illustrated  works,  i 

So  much  for  the  Holy  City.  We  may  now  proceed 
to  consider  some  of  the  specialized  scientific  missions 
conducted  during  this  period  in  various  parts  of  the 
land.  The  results  of  the  United  States  Expedition 
to  the  Dead  Sea  in  1848,  under  the  leadership  of 

'  Mention  is  perhaps,  due  to  two  other  works  on  Jerusalem.  The 
City  of  the  Great  King  (1858)  contains  the  observations  of  Dr. 
Barclay,  for  three  and  a  lialf  years  resident  in  Jerusalem  as  mis- 
sionary physician.  In  association  witli  a  Turkish  architect,  sent 
by  the  Sultan  to  repair  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  he  enjoyed,  for  sev- 
eral weeks,  oflBcial  and  unrestricted  admission  to  every  part  of  the 
sacred  enclosure.  The  results  of  these  exceptional  opportunities 
are  disappointing :  he  took  many  detailed  measurements  but  fur- 
nished no  general  plan.  Far  more  technical  in  form  are  the  pre- 
tentious folios  of  Pierotti's  Jerusalem  Explored  (1863).  In  his 
preface  he  claims  that  as  architect-engineer  to  the  Governor  of 
Jerusalem  he  had  been  constantly  occupied  for  eight  years  in  exca- 
vating, in  retracing  the  walls,  and  in  examining  the  monuments. 
His  ground-plans  and  rock-sections  were  an  advance  upon  earlier 
work ;  their  defects  may  be  seen  by  a  comparison  with  the  results 
of  the  Ordnance  Survey  and  the  excavations  of  Warren.  Instances 
of  his  gross  inaccuracy  in  plan  and  description  are  noted  on  pp.  30- 
31  of  The  Recovery  of  .Jerusalem.  Among  his  actual  discoveries 
may  be  counted  the  nortliern  jjortion  of  the  Ecce  IIoiiio  Archway 
and  tlie  subterranean  passage  under  the  Daugliters  of  Ziou. 


238  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

Lieut.  W.  F.  Lynch,  U.S.N.,  who  had  obtained  an 
especial  firman  from  the  Sultan,  can  best  be  stated 
in  his  own  words,  found  in  his  official  report  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy:  "The  exploration  of  this 
sea  was  now  complete ;  we  had  carefully  sounded  its 
depths,  determined  its  geographical  position,  taken 
topographical  sketches  of  its  shores,  ascertained  the 
temperature,  width,  depth,  and  velocity  of  its  tribu- 
taries, collected  specimens  of  its  own  and  of  its 
tributary  waters,  and  of  every  kind  of  mineral,  plant, 
and  flower,  and  noted  the  winds,  currents,  changes 
of  weather,  and  all  atmospheric  phenomena.  These, 
with  a  succinct  account  of  events,  exactly  as  they 
transpired,  will  give  a  correct  idea  of  this  sea  as  it  has 
appeared  to  us.  The  same  remark  holds  with  respect 
to  the  Jordan  and  the  country  through  which  it 
flows."  1 

At  Beyrout,  Lynch  was  joined  by  the  geologist, 
Dr.  Anderson,  formerly  professor  in  Columbia  Col- 
lege. On  April  8th,  three  boats  were  embarked  on 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  two  of  metal,  built  in  sections, 
and  one  of  wood,  which,  however,  soon  foundered. 
The  progress  down  the  Jordan  was  a  succession  of 
dangers  and  excitements,  due  to  the  frequent  rapids. 
For  twenty-two  days  the  metal  boats  were  afloat  in 
the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  but  this  period  included 
an  excursion  to  Kerak.  An  especial  geological  re- 
port was  prepared  by  Dr.  Anderson,  embracing  his 

■  Official  Report  of  tlie  United  States  Expedition  to  Explore  the 
Dead  Sea  and  the  River  Jordan,  by  Lieut  W.  F.  Lyncli,  Baltimore, 
1852,  p.  42.  The  author  obtained  official  permission  to  publish  a 
Supplementary  Narrative,  cuntaininj,'  much  matter  of  general  inter- 
est, though  unfit  for  an  official  report. 


RE  NAN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        239 

researches  in  this  department  in  the  district  between 
the  Lebanon  and  the  Dead  Sea  shore. 

Sixteen  years  later  another  mission,  having  the 
Dead  Sea  for  its  centre  of  operations,  was  organized 
by  the  Due  de  Luynes.  Its  scope,  however,  was 
wider  than  that  of  the  American  Expedition.  Al- 
most exactly  the  same  length  of  time  was  spent  in 
making  observations  of  the  Dead  Sea  itself,  but 
extended  excursions  were  made  into  Ammon  and 
Moab  and  down  the  Wady  Arabah  to  the  Gulf  of 
Akaba,  with  a  visit  to  Petra  on  the  return  journey. 
A  supplementary  trip  was  taken  to  Palmyra  by  de 
Vignes,  Officer  of  Marine,  who  had  commanded  the 
boat  on  the  Dead  Sea;  and  another  to  Kerak  and 
Shaubek  by  Mauss,  architect  of  St.  Anne's  at  Jeru- 
salem. These,  together  with  Lartet,  the  noted  geol- 
ogist of  the  expedition,  furnished  separate  reports, 
which  appeared  in  the  second  and  third  volumes  of 
"  La  Mer  Morte, "  published  in  sumptuous  form  after 
de  Luynes'  death,  under  the  editorship  of  the  Comte 
de  Vogiie.  The  duke's  especial  scientific  contribu- 
tions to  the  work — mainly  archaeological — are  found 
in  his  journals,  which  fill  the  first  volume,  but  the 
editor  regrets  that  the  leader  of  the  party,  who  con- 
trolled all  the  departments  of  research,  was  unable 
to  carry  out  his  plan  of  presenting  a  synthesis  of  the 
entire  work  of  the  expedition.  Still,  notwithstand- 
ing its  lacunce,  he  declares  that  the  book  "is  destined 
to  take  an  important  place  in  the  series  of  works 
devoted  to  the  Holy  Land." 

De  Vogiie  acknowledges  that  his  chief  inspiration 
toward  the  investigation  of  the  Orient  came  from  the 


240  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

Due  de  Luynes.  Accompanied  by  M.  Waddington, 
the  epigraphist,  he  conducted,  in  1861  and  1862, 
the  first  serious  examination  of  the  monuments  of 
Central  Syria,  by  which  name  he  includes  the  region 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  desert  and  on  the  west 
by  the  three  rivers,  the  Orontes,  the  Leontes,  and 
the  Jordan.  This  region  is  the  main  source  of  ma- 
terial for  the  study  of  Syrian  architecture  during 
the  first  six  Christian  centuries.  The  wonderful 
preservation  of  its  ancient  buildings — sometimes  in- 
tact all  but  the  roof — and  their  inaccessibility  to 
the  ordinary  traveller  bear  a  close  mutual  relation. 
Where  man  is  living  in  prosperity,  antiquity  is  in 
danger;  where  man  cannot  go  in  safety,  the  remains 
of  the  past  have  been  kept  immune.  Standing  in  places 
either  deserted  or  sparsely  inhabited  for  centuries, 
the  monuments  of  the  'Hauran  and  Northern  Syria 
have  largely  escaped  the  fate  of  those  on  the  thickly- 
populated  sea-coast,  where,  from  remote  times  to 
the  present  day,  the  constructions  of  one  period  have 
served  as  a  quarry  for  the  builders  of  another.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  explorer  who  would  penetrate  the 
regions  held  by  the  Arabs  must  count  with  his  hosts.  ^ 
The  gain  to  architecture  and  epigraphy  resulting 
from  the  expedition  of  de  Vogiie  and  Waddington 
was  immense.  Its  results  were  published  in  ade- 
quate form.  On  151  plates  accompanying  "La 
Syrie  Centrale  "  are  represented,  often  with  minute 
architectural  detail,  a  number  of  temples,  churches, 

'  Tlie  pioneer  explorer  of  the  'Ilauran  was  Seetzen  (1805-7).  The 
rcfjion  was  visited  not  h)iif^  l)efore  de  Vogiie  by  Cyril  Graham  (1857) 
and  Wetzstein  (IHGO-Gl). 


BEN  AN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        241 

convents,  private  dwellings,  funerary  monuments, 
etc.  For  forty  years,  until  the  American  Archae- 
ological Expedition  to  Syria  in  1899-90,  this  work 
remained  the  sole  authority  on  the  subjects  treated,  i 

In  1863-64  the  Rev.  Canon  Tristram  headed  an 
expedition,  the  chief  object  of  which  was  to  study 
the  geology  and  natural  history  of  Palestine.  Es- 
pecial attention  was  given  to  the  Dead  Sea  basin, 
but  other  parts  of  the  land  were  examined  with  con- 
siderable thoroughness ;  for  example,  ten  consecutive 
days  were  spent  on  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
and  three  weeks  were  devoted  to  the  exploration  of 
the  region  between  this  lake  and  the  southern  spur 
of  Hermon.2 

In  a  former  lecture  we  explained  our  apparent 
favoritism  in  devoting  what  might  strike  the  reader 
as  disproportionate  space  to  Felix  Fabri,  by  stating 
that  his  importance  for  us  lay  not  so  much  in  his 
individual  achievement  as  in  the  position  he  occupied 
at  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  of  Palestine  Explora- 
tion. That  we  are  now  about  to  treat  the  work  of 
Renan  with  a  similar  fulness  is  due  to  a  similar  rea- 
son. He  claims  our  especial  attention,  not  for  the 
actual  results  of  his  explorations,  less  important  in- 

'  La  Syrie  Centralo,  by  the  Conite  de  Vogue,  in  three  volumes. 
Tlio  vohime  witli  the  sub-title  Inscriptions  Seniitiques  was  pub- 
lislied  several  years  before  tlio  Arcliitecturo  Civile  du  I"  au  VII* 
Sie(;le  (2  vols.)-  The  Greek  and  Latin  inscrii)tions  collected  by 
Waddinffton  appeared  first  in  the  large  work  of  Lc  Bus  and  were 
later  published  separately. 

»  The  Lanil  of  Israel,  by  II.  B.  Tristram,  ISfl.'',.  The  Land  of 
Moab  treats  of  a  trans-Jordanic  trip  taken  in  1S71.  Canon  Tristram 
prepared  tlic  volume  of  the  Survey  of  Wistern  i'alestine  entitled 
Flora  and  Fauna. 


242  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

deed  than  those  of  de  Vogiie,  whom  we  have  treated 
with  brevity,  but  because  he  was  the  first  man  to 
excavate  on  the  Holy  Land — or  to  speak  more  accu- 
rately, on  the  borders  of  the  Holy  Land — on  a  large 
scale.  As  excavation  has  now  begun  to  play  so  large 
a  part  in  exploration,  we  may  appropriately  dwell 
with  considerable  detail  on  its  pioneer  exponent,  even 
though  his  methods  may  now  appear  to  be  crude  and 
his  results  not  commensurate  with  his  opportunities.  ^ 
Renan  landed  at  Beyrout  in  1860  as  the  archse- 
ological  envoy  of  Napoleon  HL,  but  representing  to 
the  Christian  natives  of  the  Lebanon  a  friendly 
people  who  had  delivered  them  from  the  power  of 
their  enemies.  The  appointment  of  Renan  to  con- 
duct an  Archseological  Mission  in  Phoenicia  was 
almost  exactly  synchronous  with  the  breaking  out  of 
the  massacres  in  the  Lebanon,  when  the  butchering 
of  thousands  of  Christians  by  Druses  led  to  the 
French  military  occupation.  This  connection  of 
events  Renan  calls  a  bizarre  coincidence,  but  it  was 
a  chance  leading  to  the  happiest  results.  When  so 
desired,  the  French  soldiers,  by  Imperial  command, 
exchanged  their  swords  for  spades.  Their  officers 
became  overseers  of  the  excavations  laid  out  by 
Renan  himself.  The  captains  of  war-vessels  rapidly 
carried  the  explorer  from  one  end  of  his  long  field  of 
excavation  to  the  other — from  Tyre  to  Aradus,  from 
Aradus  back  to  Tyre.  When  transportation  of  an- 
tiquities became  necessary,  again  the  Navy  was  at 
his  command.     Nor  was  he  indebted  alone  to  the 

'  See  Mission  de  Phenicie,  dirigee   par  Ernest  Kenan.     Paris, 
1864. 


RENAN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        243 

army  of  occupation.  Local  French  archaeologists  of 
note  gave  him  valuable  assistance.  Gaillardot  was 
unfailing  in  advice  and  practical  service.  Thobois, 
the  architect,  brought  his  especial  studies  to  the 
examination  of  ancient  buildings.  Fuad  Pasha,  espe- 
cial Turkish  envoy  after  the  massacres,  furthered  the 
work  in  strictly  Ottoman  territory,  as  distinguished 
from  the  Lebanon.  The  Patriarch,  Spiritual  Lord 
of  the  Maronites,  and  practically  Temporal  Lord  as 
well,  placed  clergy  and  people  at  his  disposal,  even 
permitting  him  to  remove  inscribed  stones  which 
had  been  built  into  the  churches.  The  search  for 
inscriptions  in  the  regions  of  Batrun  and  Jebail  was 
pretty  well  exhausted,  so  Renan  thinks,  by  the 
eagerness  of  the  Maronite  peasants,  after  he  had 
announced  to  them  that  the  great  Napoleon  wanted 
their  aid  in  preparing  a  history  of  the  land. 

At  first  thought  there  is  something  amusing  in 
this  view  of  Renan  as  a  Christian  HerOo  While 
writing  in  the  very  heart  of  Maronite  territory  his 
"Vie  de  Jesus,"  which  antagonized  the  dogmas  of 
this  religious  but  bigoted  people,  he  must  often 
have  smiled  quietly  to  himself.  We,  too,  are  in- 
clined to  smile,  but  the  smile  fades  away  when  we 
remember  how  many  of  the  Christian  virtues  Renan 
showed  in  dealing  with  the  peasantry.  Moslems 
showed  their  hostility  at  Ruad  in  overt  acts;  non- 
Catholic  Christians  viewed  his  researches  with  sus- 
picion; but  his  references  to  all  are  full  of  that 
charity  which  seeks  not  to  blame  but  to  under- 
stand. 

Renan  was  in  Syria  just  one  year,  from  October, 


244  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

1860,  to  October,  1861.  Immediately  on  landing  he 
began  a  preliminary  survey  of  the  coast-district  from 
Sidon  as  far  as  Jebail.  Four  campaigns  in  Phoenicia 
were  decided  upon,  with  the  following  places  as 
centres,  from  which  the  surrounding  districts  could 
be  explored:  the  campaign  of  Aradus  (now  Ruad), 
the  home  of  the  ancient  Arvadites;  the  campaign  of 
Byblos,  still  earlier  Gebal,  the  city  of  the  Giblites; 
the  campaign  of  Sidon;  and  the  campaign  of  Tyre. 
Researches  in  these  regions  were  to  be  supplemented 
by  tours  in  Palestine,  the  land  which,  as  he  held,  for 
the  history  of  art  formed  an  appendix  to  Phoenicia. 
This  tremendous  programme  had  to  be  carried  out  by 
the  1st  of  June,  when  the  climate  would  interrupt  ex- 
cavations on  the  sun-baked  Syrian  plains,  and  when 
the  co-operation  of  the  army  would  no  longer  be 
available.  Its  details  were  in  the  hands  of  assistants, 
military  and  civil,  while  Renan  acted  as  general 
director.  But  the  accomplishment  of  the  work  thus 
laid  out  by  no  means  exhausted  our  Frenchman's 
activity.  His  rapid  passages  from  point  to  point  to 
survey  the  various  excavations ;  his  personal  exami- 
nation with  extraordinary  detail  of  the  districts  sur- 
rounding each  centre;  his  long  tours  in  Galilee  and 
in  Southern  Palestine  had  left  him  full  of  ardor  to 
explore  the  higher  Lebanon.  At  the  termination  of 
this  tour  at  the  end  of  July,  he  retired  to  the  village 
of  Ghazir,  above  the  exquisite  little  bay  of  Juneh, 
but  not  even  then  to  rest.  "I  profited,"  he  says, 
"  by  the  profound  tranquilhty  to  write  out  the  ideas 
which  had  been  suggested  to  me  by  Palestine." 
Here,  then,  was  begun  the  "Vie  de  Jesus,"  the 


RENAN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        245 

first  life  of  Christ  to  present  a  vivid  and  accurate 
picture  of  His  earthly  surroundings.  The  writing 
of  this  book  was  sanctified  by  a  terrible  loss.  It  is 
dedicated  to  "  the  pure  soul  of  my  sister  Henriette," 
who  died  at  Jebail  (Byblos),  September  24,  1861. 
'  *  Recallest  thou,  in  the  bosom  of  God  where  thou 
dost  repose,"  he  says  in  his  dedication,  "Recallest 
thou  the  long  days  at  Ghazir  where,  alone  with  thee, 
I  wrote  these  pages,  inspired  by  the  places  which  we 
visited  together?  Silent  at  my  side  thou  didst  re- 
read each  leaf,  and  copy  it  as  soon  as  it  was  written ; 
while  the  sea,  the  villages,  the  ravines,  the  moun- 
tains, unrolled  themselves  at  our  feet.  .  .  .  Thou 
sleepest  now  in  the  land  of  Adonis  near  the  holy 
Byblos  and  the  sacred  waters  where  the  women  of 
the  ancient  mysteries  came  to  mingle  their  tears. 
Reveal  to  me,  0  good  Genius,  to  me  whom  thou 
lovest,  the  verities  that  dominate  death,  that  forbid 
us  to  fear  and  make  us  almost  to  love  it."  Pros- 
trated by  the  same  kind  of  fever  that  caused  his 
sister's  death,  Renan  lost  consciousness  for  thirty- 
two  hours.  When  again  he  came  to  himself,  he  was 
alone. 

We  may  now  glance  rapidly  at  the  results  of  the 
four  campaigns  above  mentioned.  The  campaign  of 
Aradus  takes  its  name  from  the  little  island  now 
called  Riiad,  off  the  Syrian  coast,  but  the  chief  work 
was  done  on  the  main-land  opposite.  The  sturdy  insu- 
larity of  the  Moslem  Arvadites  did  not  favor  archae- 
ological researches.  Still,  in  the  few  days  of  his  visit, 
Renan  was  able  to  examine  the  sea-wall,  which  he 
pronounces  to  be  "the  most  authentic  construction 


246  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

of  ancient  Phoenicia, ' '  and  to  secure  for  the  Louvre 
several  antiques  and  inscribed  bases  of  statues.  On 
moving  to  the  main-land,  the  brief  period  of  sixty 
days,  available  for  excavation,  forced  upon  his  atten- 
tion alternative  plans.  He  had  to  choose  between 
the  examination  of  the  mass  of  ancient  monuments 
at  Amrit,  the  ancient  Marathus,  and  the  excavation 
of  the  numerous  graves  in  the  plains  south  of  Tar- 
tus — the  Greek  Antaradus,  the  Crusading  Tortosa. 
The  aim  of  his  mission,  which  was  a  comparative 
study  of  Phoenician  monuments,  rather  than  the 
search  for  small  objects,  led  him  to  the  choice  of 
Marathus.  In  the  plains  near  Tartus  the  coffins  had, 
as  a  rule,  been  placed  immediately  in  the  ground, 
hence  the  vast  sepulchre  had  no  especial  architect- 
ural interest.  He  points  out  that  the  search  for 
objects  in  graves  may  be  left  to  the  cupidity  of  the 
natives,  provided  first  that  they  do  not  destroy  im- 
portant monuments,  and  secondly  that  their  wares 
reach  the  proper  market — two  provisions  that  have 
been  proved  to  be  difficult  of  realization. 

Others  besides  Renan  have  also  been  forced  to 
choose  between  two  tempting  forms  of  work.  A 
similar  alternative  was  forced  upon  mo  at  Tell-Sanda- 
hannah  in  the  summer  of  1900,  when  my  time  was 
also  limited.  I  had  to  choose  between  the  thorough 
excavation  of  the  Greek  town  buried  by  the  upper 
layer  of  debris  on  the  mound,  and  the  tempting 
chance  to  devote  myself  entirely  to  looking  for  un- 
opened graves  in  the  surrounding  cemeteries,  already 
largely  exploited  by  the  Fellahm.  My  choice  of  the 
former  work  was  justified  in  my  own  eyes  by  tiie 


henan  and  his  contemporaries      ^47 

plan  which  my  colleague,  Mr.  Macalister,  was  able  to 
make  of  almost  a  complete  city,  with  its  walls,  gate, 
streets,  and  houses.  Nor  in  the  subsequent  discov- 
ery of  a  richly  painted  tomb,  where  Drs.  Peters  and 
Thiersch  found  inscriptional  substantiation  of  our 
identification  of  the  place  with  Marissa,  do  I  find  a 
reason  for  regretting  my  decision.  ^  The  excavation 
of  the  town  could  not  have  been  undertaken  except 
by  an  expedition,  such  as  those  conducted  by  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  This  tomb,  with  many 
others,  was  bound  to  be  discovered  in  time,  and 
might  have  been  overlooked  in  our  short  cam- 
paign, even  if  we  had  devoted  this  entirely  to 
grave-hunting. 

Before  concentrating  his  attention  on  Amrit,  Renan 
made  a  study  of  the  walls  of  Tortosa,  built  by  the 
Crusaders.  This,  taken  in  connection  with  studies 
of  masonry  at  many  other  places,  helped  him  to  ex- 
plode the  theory  that  drafted  and  bossed  stones  are 
invariably  signs  of  great  antiquity.  This  style  he 
shows  to  be  found  in  Syria  at  every  period.  Of  the 
monuments  scattered  over  the  plain  of  Amrit — 
monuments  doubtless  built  by  the  islanders  of  Arvad 
— some  had  long  been  known  to  the  Western  world, 
others  were  discovered  by  Renan  himself,  but  none, 
he  says,  had  received  adequate  attention  previously 
to  his  campaign.  These  monuments  he  held  to  be 
unique.  Unlike  that  of  all  other  Phoenician  remains, 
their  art  appears  to  owe  nothing  to  the  West.  The 
glory  of  Marathus  had  departed  before  Syria  was 

'  Painted  Tombs  at  Marissa  (Mar^shali).  Described  by  Kev.  J. 
P.  Peters,  U.D. ,  and  Dr.  Ilurmanii  Tiiiersch.  Published  by  the 
P.  E.  F. 


218  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

transformed  by  the  combined  influence  of  Greece  and 
Rome.  Hence  the  absence  of  inscriptions,  so  rare 
in  the  early  days  of  Phoenicia.  Among  the  splendid 
plates  of  M.  Thobois,  we  find  none  more  beautiful 
than  those  on  which  are  reproduced  the  stately  sepul- 
chral towers  which  dominate  the  landscape,  and  which 
attracted  the  attention  of  Burchard  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  Thorough  excavation  was  made  of  the 
underlying  tomb-chambers.  But  the  most  interest- 
ing among  the  remains  is  the  place  of  worship  de- 
scribed by  Renan  as  the  oldest  and  almost  the  only 
temple  of  the  Semitic  race  known  to  be  extant  in 
his  day.  In  the  midst  of  a  rock-hewn  enclosure 
once  completed  by  masonry,  he  found  the  foundation 
of  a  sort  of  cella  which  he  compares  with  the  taber- 
nacle of  the  Hebrews. 

The  archaeological  field  of  Jebail  presented  great 
attractions  to  our  explorer.  Philo  of  Byblos  sup- 
ported the  legend  that  his  city  was  the  oldest  in  the 
world.  The  Giblites  played  an  important  role  in  the 
constructions  of  Solomon.  Here,  early  in  the  Chris- 
tian era,  the  East  and  the  West  interpenetrated  in  a 
remarkable  manner.  During  the  time  of  the  An- 
tonines,  into  the  ancient  local  cult — the  sensuous 
cult  of  Thammuz  or  Adonis — was  infused  another 
element,  highly  spiritual  and  symbolic,  namely,  the 
sanctification  and  idealization  of  Death.  As  an  ob- 
stinate centre  of  Paganism,  it  suffered  still  later  from 
Christian  iconoclasm.  When  the  Crusaders  seized 
the  place  it  was  probably  only  a  mass  of  ruins.  The 
small  town  which  they  built  on  part  of  the  ancient  site 
remains,  so  Renan  says,  almost  stone  for  stone  to  this 


RENAN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        249 

day.  1  No  wonder  that  he  approached  its  excavation 
with  the  deepest  excitement,  tempered  by  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  destructive  nature  of  its  vicissitudes.  No 
wonder  that  the  work  here  enjoyed  his  personal  super- 
vision to  an  extent  unparalleled  at  the  other  centres. 
The  results  of  this  campaign,  however,  are  dis- 
tinctly disappointing.  The  soil  of  the  ancient  town 
was  hardly  touched.  In  the  large  fields  to  the  south 
of  the  modern  village,  under  which  doubtless  lies  a 
large  part  of  the  Phoenician  Gebal,  with  the  dwell- 
ings of  the  Greek  Byblos  superimposed,  he  made  but 
few  trenches,  and  these  were,  on  the  whole,  unpro- 
ductive. Near  the  Crusading  Castle,  at  the  south- 
east angle  of  the  tower,  he  found  a  cube  of  masonry 
sixteen  feet  square,  consisting  of  large  stones.  Not 
far  away  he  turned  up  a  capital  of  a  column,  three 
alabaster  slabs  with  a  characteristic  Giblite  orna- 
ment, and  a  bas-rehef  of  a  lion,  showing  no  affinities 
with  Western  art,  but  resembling  the  work  at  Nine- 
veh. From  these  meagre  elements,  by  a  study  of 
historical  authorities,  as  well  as  of  coins  on  which  is 
represented  a  temple  adjoining  a  colonnaded  court 
enclosing  a  pyramid,  he  reconstructs  part  of  the 
Temple  of  Venus  and  Adonis,  mentioned  by  the 
author  of  "  De  Dea  Syria. ' '  In  the  cube  of  masonry 
he  proposes  to  find  the  base  of  the  pyramid;  the 
stones  of  the  temple  itself  he  recognizes  tentatively 
in  the  bossed  masonry  re-used  in  constructing  the 
Crusading  Castle;  in  the  alabaster  slabs  he  sees  the 
ornamented  facing  of  the  pyramid  base.     That  this 

'  A  tmicli  cxa^^jcrateJ  statuinciit,  ('xci'j)t  us  api)lie(]  to  the  town 
wall.i  and  the  castle. 


250  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

had  been  repaired  in  later  times  he  thinks  is  sug- 
gested by  slabs  of  inferior  material  discovered  in  the 
vicinity.  We  admire  Kenan's  learning  and  ingenu- 
ity, but  we  cannot  help  feeling  that  these  are  here 
set  to  work  on  slight  and  insufficient  data.  Had  he 
supplemented  his  free  use  of  his  learning  with  a 
freer  use  of  the  spade,  the  world  might  have  been 
richer  in  actual  knowledge.  To  exhaust  the  search 
for  data  before  constructing  theories  should  be  the 
prime  law  of  the  scientific  excavator.  Renan  doubt- 
less exhausted  the  search  for  correlated  objects  in 
the  vicinity  of  his  masonry  cube,  but  a  large  field  in 
which  clearer  signs  of  the  Temple  of  Venus  and 
Adonis  may  yet  remain  buried  was  untouched.  A 
note  of  levity  sounds  in  the  sentence  near  the  end 
of  his  chapter  on  By  bios:  "To  sum  up,  apart  from 
a  few  tombs  and  the  monument  which  we  discovered 
near  the  Castle,  Canaanitish  Gebal  has  disappeared." 
This  may  be  so,  but  Renan  did  not  prove  it.  Proof 
or  disproof  rests  with  the  excavator  of  the  future 
who  shall  turn  over  all  the  ancient  debris,  wherever 
it  may  be  found,  within  or  without  the  modern  town. 
And  disproved  his  statement  will  be  unless  analogy 
with  other  buried  sites,  which  have  been  seriously 
excavated,  fails  altogether. 

The  examination  of  sepulchres  in  Jebail  and 
vicinity  was  as  thorough  as  the  time  permitted. 
That  it  was  not  exhaustive  has  been  illustrated  by 
the  discovery  of  an  ornamented  sarcophagus  at  this 
site  while  I  have  been  preparing  this  lecture.  In 
the  Giblite  tombs,  Renan  recognizes  almost  every 
known  form  of  sepulture,   from  a  simple  cavern. 


RENAN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        251 

analogous  to  the  Cave  of  Machpelah,  down  to 
Roman  sarcophagi  and  narrow  ditch-graves  of  the 
Christian  era.  Adequate  representation,  however, 
of  these  is  not  forthcoming.  Instead  of  a  series  of 
sheets  with  plans  of  typical  tombs,  showing  the 
chronological  development,  we  find  a  few  free-hand 
sketches.  It  is  also  unfortunate  that,  with  hardly 
an  exception,  the  cemeteries  which  he  examined  had 
been  robbed  at  some  previous  period.  "The  ex- 
ploration of  Byblos, "  he  exclaims,  "has  been  made 
fifty  years  too  late."  In  the  search  for  small  objects 
to  sell  to  collectors,  sometimes  tombs  containing  in- 
scriptions had  been  destroyed.  No  better  example  can 
be  given,  he  says,  to  show  "  how  the  petty  curiosity 
of  the  amateur  is  the  enemy  of  the  noble  curiosity  of 
the  savant.'"  In  further  illustration  of  the  recent 
destruction  of  monuments,  he  points  to  the  ancient 
materials,  sometimes  inscribed,  which  had  been 
taken  from  Jebail  and  built  into  the  modern  houses 
of  the  neighboring  village  of  'Amschit.  Even 
among  the  majestic  precipices  and  noble  glades  of 
the  sacred  river  Adonis,  above  whose  banks  he  ex- 
amined temples  and  rock-sculptures,  he  is  forced  to 
cry  out  against  the  recent  vandalism  of  the  peas- 
ants. "To  build  a  miserable  hovel,"  he  tells  us, 
' '  the  natives  have  destroyed  curious  edifices  ;  in 
the  search  for  treasure,  they  have  demolished  sanctu- 
aries preserved  intact  until  our  day  ;  to  find  a  few 
pieces  of  gold,  offerings  of  the  last  of  the  pagans, 
tliey  have  broken  down  altars  and  overturned  Baal 
from  the  pedestal  where,  I  am  assured,  he  still  sat 
enthroned  only  three  or  four  years  ago!  " 


252  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

The  work  at  Sidon  was  concentrated  upon  the 
clearing  out  of  the  large  rock-cut  cemetery  acquired 
and  still  owned  by  the  French  Government.  M. 
Gaillardot  superintended  the  complete  excavation  of 
the  tombs  within  a  radius  of  sixty  metres  from 
Mugharet  'Adlun,  where,  only  a  few  years  before, 
was  made  the  discovery  of  the  inscribed  sarcophagus 
of  Eshmunazar,  which  so  fired  the  hopes  of  Phoeni- 
cian epigraphists.  Renan's  Mission  was  not  re- 
warded by  the  finding  of  inscriptions  in  this  Sidon 
cemetery,  but,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  rob- 
bers had  previously  explored  it  from  end  to  end, 
the  party  recovered  several  beautiful  anthropoid  sar- 
cophagi, which  now  ornament  the  Louvre.  The  chief 
spoil  from  Sidon,  however,  is  in  the  Museum  at 
Constantinople.  The  discovery,  by  a  peasant  in 
1887,  of  the  so-called  sarcophagus  of  Alexander, 
whose  delicate  sculptures  rival  the  Elgin  Marbles, 
was  the  result  of  pure  accident.  Chance  is  your 
great  discoverer.  Chance  found  the  Tell-el-Amarna 
tablets.  Chance  found  the  Siloam  inscription. 
Chance  brought  to  light  the  Map  Mosaic  of  Madeba, 
when  the  ruined  church  of  which  it  forms  the  floor- 
ing was  rebuilt  by  order  of  the  Greek  Patriarch, 

Beyond  the  radius  just  mentioned  Gaillardot  ex- 
cavated more  rapidly.  Three  sheets  with  elaborate 
plans  and  sections  illustrate  his  analysis  of  the 
tomb-chambers,  and  cause  us  to  regret,  by  contrast, 
the  meagre  record  and  inadequate  representation  of 
the  large  numbers  of  cemeteries  found  all  along  the 
coast  from  Latakia  to  Umm-el-'Awamid. 

The  chief  interest  of  the  campaign  of  Tyre  centres 


RENAN  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES        253 

not  in  the  ancient  town  itself,  where  Kenan's  recon- 
struction is  almost  purely  theoretic  and  without 
monumental  basis,  nor  in  the  adjacent  cemeteries, 
which  he  says  were  only  partially  examined,  but  in 
the  discoveries  at  the  so-called  Hiram's  Tomb  in  the 
near  vicinity,  and  at  Umm-el-'Awamid — formerly  a 
town  called  Laodicea,  some  ten  miles  to  the  south. 
At  the  former  place  was  uncovered  a  fine  mosaic, 
which  was  taken  up  and  transported  to  the  Louvre 
by  the  Roman  mosaist  Taddei.  The  remains  of 
Grseco-Phoenician  antiquity  at  Umm-el-'Awamid,  in- 
cluding a  series  of  Phoenician  inscriptions,  led  Renan 
to  recommend  this  site,  above  all  others,  to  the  at- 
tention of  future  explorers.  We  may  note  that  his 
prognostications  have  been  recently  justified  by  the 
discovery  of  the  fragment  of  a  statue  with  a  Phoeni- 
cian inscription. 

The  above  sketch  hardly  does  justice  to  Renan's 
activity  in  accomplishing  his  year's  mission.  The 
amount  of  ground  covered  by  the  expedition  explains 
at  once  its  merits  and  its  deficiencies.  What  Science 
gained  in  data  for  a  comparative  study  of  Phoenician 
monuments  is  considerable.  Had  he  confined  him- 
self to  one  point,  Jebail,  for  instance,  while  his  account 
of  that  place  would  have  been  far  richer,  it  could 
not  have  been  so  well  correlated  with  other  Phoeni- 
cian centres,  as  can  be  the  more  meagre  account 
actually  furnished.  We  cannot  regret,  then,  that 
he  did  not  confine  himself  to  Jebail.  And  yet  we 
could  wish  that  he  had  put  more  of  his  time,  there 
available,  into  the  examination  of  the  ancient  debris 
and  less  into  pursuing  minute  questions  relative  to 


254  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

the  tombs.  In  other  words,  he  did  not  make  the 
most  of  his  unique  opportunity  for  actual  excavation. 
He  seemed  not  to  have  considered  that  his  advan- 
tages for  surface-exploration  might  be  enjoyed,  to  a 
large  extent,  by  future  travellers,  but  that,  humanly 
speaking,  never  again  would  a  digger  be  allowed  so 
free  a  hand  in  Syria.  In  compensation,  however, 
we  must  remember  that  while  the  future  excavator 
of  Jebail  must  comply  with  Ottoman  regulations, 
must  turn  all  his  finds  over  to  the  Imperial  Museum, 
and  must  satisfy  the  lawful  demands  of  land-owners 
and  planters  of  crops,  ^  he  will  bring  to  his  work  more 
scientific  methods  of  digging  than  were  known  in 
the  day  of  Renan's  mission.  The  great  and  mod- 
est Frenchman  would  be  the  first  to  recognize  this 
were  he  still  among  us.  In  his  own  work  he  saw 
only  a  preparation.  "We  do  not  pretend,"  he  says 
in  conclusion,  "to  have  exhausted  a  land  which 
for  centuries  will  continue  to  exercise  the  labors  of 
archaeologists.  We  have  sought  less  to  shine  than 
to  serve  the  progress  of  Science.  We  shall  be  suf- 
ficiently recompensed  if  those  who  come  after  us 
find  in  this  book  useful  indications."  In  seeking 
to  compare  the  results  of  his  own  digging  with 
Phoenician  monuments  already  known,  the  future 
excavator  of  Jebail  will  find  himself  under  great 
obligations  to  the  author  of  the  ' '  Mission  de  Phe- 
nicie." 

'  The  excavation  even  of  tliosc  parts  of  the  ancient  city  which 
lie  beyond  the  town  walls  would  now  be  very  expensive,  owing  to 
the  numerous  mulberry-groves. 


LECTURE  VII 

THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND 

On  June  22,  1865,  a  large  and  distinguished  body 
of  men,  meeting  in  Willis's  Rooms,  London,  under 
the  chairmanship  of  the  Archbishop  of  York,  for- 
mally organized  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  As 
far  as  its  aims  were  concerned  this  organization  was 
but  a  re-institution  of  a  Society  formed  about  the 
year  1804  under  the  name  of  the  Palestine  Associa- 
tion. This  Society  proposed  to  procure  and  publish 
information  regarding  the  state  of  the  Holy  Land; 
its  geography,  its  people,  its  climate,  and  its  history. 
The  only  volume  which  appears  to  have  been  issued 
was  ' '  A  Brief  Account  of  the  Countries  Adjoining 
the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  the  Jordan,  and  the  Dead  Sea 
(1810)" — a  translation  of  papers  written  by  Seetzen, 
which  came  into  the  Society's  possession  through  the 
National  Institute  of  Paris.  The  Association  ap- 
pears, however,  to  have  despatched  two  especial 
agents  to  conduct  an  exploration,  but  they  are  said 
to  have  got  no  farther  than  Malta,  owing  to  rumors 
of  the  dangerous  condition  of  Palestine.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  the  Committee  held  meetings  between 
1805  and  1834.  At  this  latter  date  it  was  decided 
to  dissolve  the  Association  and  to  hand  over  a  balance 
of  some  £135  to  the  Committee  of  the  Royal  Goo- 


256  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

graphical  Society,  on  the  ground  that  its  scope  cov- 
ered the  aims  of  the  Palestine  Association.  More 
than  forty  years  later,  in  1876,  a  request  was  made 
to  the  President  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
by  a  number  of  the  Fellows,  many  of  whom  were  at 
the  same  time  serving  on  the  General  Committee  of 
the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  that  the  above  sum 
should  be  transferred  to  the  new  Society,  which  was 
successfully  carrying  out  the  work  that  had  been 
temporarily  abandoned.  Whether  this  request  was 
granted  or  not  I  have  not  ascertained,  but  in  any 
case  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  General  Com- 
mittee of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  recognized 
an  organic  connection  with  the  earlier  Society.  ^ 

In  a  prospectus  presented  by  a  sub-committee  at 
the  second  meeting  of  the  Fund,  it  was  clearly  rec- 
ognized that  much  careful  work  along  various  lines 
had  been  accomplished  by  explorers  since  Robinson 
had  laid  down  the  principles  for  true  scientific  re- 
search, "But,"  so  runs  the  prospectus,  ".  .  . 
their  researches  have  been  partial  and  isolated,  and 
their  results  in  too  many  cases  discrepant  with  each 
other.  What  is  now  proposed  is  an  expedition  of 
thoroughly  competent  persons  in  each  branch  of  re- 
search, with  perfect  command  of  funds  and  time,  who 
should  produce  a  report  on  Palestine  which  might 
be  accepted  by  all  parties  as  a  trustworthy  and 
thoroughly  satisfactory  document." 

The  key-note  of  the  prospectus  is  found  in  the 

'  The  statement  is  quite  explicit :  "The  Society  thus  dissolved  in 
1834  was  instituted  atjain  in  l.S()5."  See  Letter  to  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society ;  Q.  S.,  187G,  p.  154  ff. 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      257 

phrases  ' '  thoroughly  competent  persons  ' '  and  ' '  per- 
fect command  of  funds  and  time."  Competent  per- 
sons had  indeed  explored  the  Holy  Land,  but  upon 
most  of  them  had  been  enforced  an  economy  of  funds 
or  time,  sometimes  of  both.  No  one  felt  the  limita- 
tions hedging  in  the  single  traveller  better  than 
Robinson.  Proper  exploration,  he  says  in  substance, 
cannot  be  regarded  as  within  the  power  and  oppor- 
tunities of  any  single  individual.  Illness  thwarted 
his  own  plans  for  visiting  Northern  Syria.  Illness 
and  other  causes  were  destined  to  interrupt  the 
work  of  individual  officers  of  the  Fund,  but  they  rep- 
resent a  home-committee  always  ready  and  able  to 
supply  a  vacant  place. 

The  Constitution  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund  is  as  follows:  There  is  a  large  General  Com- 
mittee, under  the  patronage  of  the  Throne,  whose 
aggregate  names,  to  quote  the  late  Honorary  Secre- 
tary, Sir  Walter  Besant,  forms  almost  a  list  of 
British  worthies  from  1865  to  the  present  day.i 
The  original  membership  included  the  Archbishop 
of  York,  three  bishops,  the  Dukes  of  Argyll  and 
Devonshire,  the  Earls  of  Shaftesbury  and  Derby, 
the  Speaker  of  the  House,  Dean  Stanley,  Dr.  Plump- 
tre,  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  Professor  Owen,  Canon  Tris- 
tram, Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  Messrs.  Grove,  Fergus- 
son,  and  Williams,  etc.  This  Committee  is  called 
together  but  once  a  year  to  hear  the  report  of  the 
Executive  Committee,  chosen  from  its  members. 
The   business  of   the  Society  is   transacted   at  bi- 

'  Sir  Walter  wrote  in  1892;  see  The  City  and  the  Land:  Lect- 
ures, p.  lOL 


258  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

monthly  meetings  by  this  smaller  body,  whose  num- 
bers average  almost  twenty.  The  Office  and  Museum 
are  in  charge  of  the  paid  Secretary.  Sir  Walter 
Besant  held  this  post  from  1868  to  1886,  and  acted  as 
Honorary  Secretary  from  the  latter  date  to  the  time 
of  his  death.  His  acceptance  of  the  Secretaryship 
was,  he  tells  us,  the  result  of  a  fortunate  accident, 
namely,  his  being  for  the  moment  one  of  the  unem- 
ployed. Fortunate  it  certainly  was  for  the  Society. 
Though,  strangely  enough,  never  in  Palestine  him- 
self, he  had  an  immense  enthusiasm  for  the  cause. 
Of  the  £85,000  collected  up  to  the  year  1892, 
£65,000  were  obtained  by  his  efforts.  Fortunate 
it  also  appears  to  have  been  for  Sir  Walter.  For 
one  person  who  knows  of  his  connection  with  explo- 
ration, twenty  know  only  of  the  successful  novelist. 
With  no  detriment  to  his  office  duties,  in  his  spare 
hours  this  indefatigable  worker  laid  the  foundation 
for  his  wider  reputation.  Indeed,  he  has  somewhere 
recommended  would-be  writers  to  obtain  a  similar 
post,  which  would  secure  them  a  moderate  income 
while  adventuring  the  uncertain  paths  of  literature. 
Mr.  George  Armstrong,  Sir  Walter's  successor, 
brought  to  his  work  a  personal  knowledge  of  the 
land,  gained  during  his  long  connection  with  the 
Survey  party.  To  the  general  public  he  is  known 
as  the  clever  constructor  of  the  beautiful  raised 
maps.  By  the  inner  circle  his  devotion  to  the 
Society  is  recognized  as  being  equal  to  that  of  his 
distinguished  predecessor.  It  has  been  my  good 
fortune  to  come  into  close  contact  with  two  chair- 
men.    Sir  Charles  Wilson,  indeed,  did  not  occupy 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      259 

the  chair  till  after  my  connection  with  the  Fund 
had  ceased,  but,  as  former  surveyor  of  the  Holy 
City,  he  had  an  especial  interest  in  my  Jerusalem 
excavations,  and  later  visited  my  camp  at  Tell-Zaka- 
riya.  In  1901  he  succeeded  Mr.  James  Glaisher,  the 
famous  aeronaut,  who,  during  his  twenty  years'  oc- 
cupancy of  the  chair,  had  missed  hardly  a  single 
meeting,  Mr.  Glaisher  continued  to  hold  a  position 
on  the  Executive  Committee  till  his  death  in  1903, 
at  the  age  of  ninety-four. 

It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  Fund  to  choose  specialists 
for  the  Executive  Committee.  Architecture,  numis- 
matics, epigraphy,  philology,  art,  natural  science,  his- 
tory, archaeology,  and  military  tactics  have  all  been 
represented  by  well-known  names.  Touch  has  also 
been  kept  with  other  scholars.  The  Committee  has 
shown  a  large-minded  conception  of  the  relations  to 
be  borne  toward  officers  in  the  field.  Instructions 
once  given,  explorers  have  seldom  been  hampered  by 
martinet  orders  respecting  detail.  In  cases  where 
the  members  are  capable  of  giving  exact  specifica- 
tions, as,  for  example,  in  the  well-studied  field  of 
Jerusalem  topography,  such  specifications  are  forth- 
coming, but  in  other  cases,  such  as  the  excavation 
of  the  mounds,  the  explorer  is  left  to  his  best  judg- 
ment as  to  methods,  provided  that  appropriations  are 
not  exceeded.  Indeed,  I  doubt  if  many  other  organ- 
izations, workings  at  long  range,  can  tell  such  a  story 
of  harmonious  relations  between  home-committee  and 
men  on  the  field.  But  what  is  still  more  exceptional, 
the  men  on  the  field  have  been  at  peace  among  them- 
selves, and  the  Committee  itself  has  never  been  split 


260  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

by  inner  quarrels.    No  wonder  that  the  Society,  now 
in  its  fortieth  year,  is  still  flourishing! 

At  the  preliminary  meeting  of  the  new  Society  in 
1865,  the  Archbishop  of  York  laid  down  the  following 
principles  for  its  guidance:  1.  That  whatever  was 
undertaken  should  be  carried  out  on  scientific  prin- 
ciples. 2.  That  the  Society  should,  as  a  body,  abstain 
from  controversy.  3.  That  it  should  not  be  started, 
nor  should  it  be  conducted  as  a  religious  Society. 
Strict  adherence  on  the  whole  has  been  given  to 
these  principles.  The  men  who  have  officered  the 
expeditions  have  been  specialists  in  their  own  line  of 
work.  The  first  excavations  at  Jerusalem  and  the 
Survey  were  conducted  by  Royal  Engineers  lent  by 
the  War  Office.  The  Geological  party  was  headed  by 
Professor  Hull.  Petrie  brought  to  the  unravelling  of 
the  mound  of  Lachish  his  vast  experience  of  excavation 
in  Egypt.  Nor  have  the  agents  conducting  smaller  un- 
dertakings been  less  trained  to  their  work.  No  man 
ever  knew  his  Jerusalem  as  Dr.  Schick  knew  it.  No 
Palestinian  archaeologist  has  shown  greater  erudi- 
tion than  Professor  Clermont-Ganneau.  In  regard 
to  the  second  point,  while  the  pages  of  the  Society's 
organ,  the  Quarterly  Statement,  are  occasionally  en- 
livened with  pretty  sharp  discussion,  it  is  distinctly 
stated  in  each  number  that  the  individual  authors 
are  alone  responsible  for  the  positions  taken.  The 
Committee  pronounces  no  opinion.  The  Committee, 
as  a  Committee,  says  Sir  Walter,  has  no  opinion. 
Again,  the  non-committal  platform  as  to  religious 
matters  is  illustrated  by  the  roll  of  members,  which, 
besides  a  number  of  Jews,  includes  Roman  Catholics, 


rilE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      261 

Greeks,  Anglicans,  and  Protestants  of  other  churches, 
including  Unitarians.  "It  simply  invites  support," 
says  Besant,  "  from  all  those  persons  who  happen  to 
be  interested  in  a  certain  collection  of  books,  apart 
from  any  doctrine  which  may  have  been  deduced 
from  those  books,  or  any  opinion  as  to  the  weight  of 
those  books,  and  apart  from  the  fact  that  to  very 
many  these  are  and  always  will  be  the  most  precious 
books  in  the  world." 

It  should  be  noticed  that  when  the  Committee  first 
appealed  for  funds  in  support  of  the  Society,  the 
members  hoped  to  accomplish  the  work  of  the  Ex- 
ploration of  Palestine  in  a  few  years.  Accordingly, 
they  asked  for  donations  rather  than  for  annual  sub- 
scriptions. The  sum  of  £8,000  obtained  during  the 
first  three  years  falls  almost  entirely  under  the  first 
category.  When  the  Jerusalem  excavations  were 
announced  in  1867,  response  to  the  appeal  for  money 
came  from  many  and  various  quarters.  The  Queen 
gave  £150;  the  University  of  Oxford,  £500;  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  £250;  among  other  cities, 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  made  handsome  contribu- 
tions. A  vast  number  of  small  donations,  some  of 
wliich  came  from  people  of  very  modest  means,  fore- 
shadowed the  list  of  annual  subscribers  who  were 
later  to  form  the  main-stay  of  the  Fund.  For  the 
larger  part  of  its  existence,  in  the  matter  of  support, 
the  Society  has  resembled  the  great  Missionary 
Boards.  As  an  accredited  Institution  its  mainte- 
nance has  become  a  tradition.  Turning  over  the 
list  of  annual  suljscribers,  we  find  many  names  re- 
peated from  year  to  year,  from  decade  to  decade. 


26^  PALESTINE  EXPLOUATION 

The  number  of  members  who  contribute  from  $2.50 
to  $10  ranges  from  2,500  to  3,000.  The  majority 
are  in  the  United  Kingdom,  but  subscriptions  come 
from  Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  United 
States,  etc.  Dr.  T.  F.  Wright,  of  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  is  Honorary  General  Secretary  for  the  United 
States,  and  there  are  Honorary  Secretaries  in  twenty 
States.  When  an  important  expedition  is  in  the 
field,  the  membership  is  apt  to  rise;  when  a  given 
exploration  is  over,  it  drops.  Large  donations  are 
not  entirely  unknown,  but  httle  dependence  is 
placed  on  these.  This  large  clientele  of  subscribers 
of  small  sums  has  secured  to  the  Society  a  per- 
manence, a  continuity  which  it  could  not  have 
enjoyed  had  it  been  started  as  the  pet  scheme  of  a 
small  group  of  millionnaires. 

Such  a  clientele  has,  however,  certain  disadvant- 
ages. The  subscribers  must  be  interested,  or  they 
may  cease  to  subscribe.  To  interest  by  the  same 
journal  all  the  members  of  a  heterogeneous  body  is 
the  almost  impossible  task  set  before  the  editor  of  the 
Quarterly  Statement,  which  has  been  the  Organ  of 
the  Fund  since  1869.  Among  the  supporters  of  the 
Society  we  find  the  Biblical  and  Archaeological  spe- 
cialists of  Europe  and  America;  we  find  a  large 
number  of  clergymen  and  others  who,  though  not 
specialists,  yet  approach  the  subject  of  exploration 
in  a  scientific  spirit ;  we  find  a  mass  of  people  inter- 
ested in  anything  that  concerns  the  Bible  and  the 
land  of  its  birth,  provided  that  the  material  is  pre- 
sented in  a  popular  way ;  and  finally,  we  find  the  cranks 
with  an  especial  axe  to  grind.     We  hasten  to  say 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      263 

that  the  last-named  class  has  little  consideration 
accorded  it  by  the  Editor.  Occasionally  such  a 
heading  as  ' '  Where  are  the  Sacred  Vessels  of  the 
Temple?"  may  cause  the  judicious  to  grieve,  but 
this  sort  of  article  appears,  I  am  glad  to  note,  only 
by  exception.  However,  the  juxtaposition  of  papers 
having  a  popular  character  with  the  scientific  reports 
of  the  accredited  agents  of  the  Fund  robs  the  Quar- 
terly Statement  of  the  unity  which  it  might  have 
had  were  it  either  a  strictly  popular  or  a  strictly 
scientific  journal.  The  successive  numbers  form  a 
series  of  surprises,  agreeable  and  otherwise.  A 
given  number,  issued  when  no  campaign  is  in  prog- 
ress, may  furnish  no  food  for  the  scholar,  while  the 
number  succeeding  may  be  full  of  important  matter, 
original  and  critical.  Still,  the  thirty-six  volumes, 
from  1869-1905,  form  a  storehouse,  vast  and  rich, 
of  all  sorts  of  information  regarding  Syria  and  Pal- 
estine. Viewed  as  a  collection,  it  is  simply  indis- 
pensable. Here  are  the  ad-interim  reports  of  the 
Officers  conducting  the  great  campaigns,  upon  which 
have  been  based  the  books  published  by  the  Fund, 
showing  in  some  cases  how  opinions  were  formed 
which  are  merely  stated  in  the  books  themselves. 
Here  is  a  multitude  of  papers  by  Dr.  Conrad  Schick, 
who,  as  a  local  architect  enjoying  the  confidence  of 
Moslems  and  Christians  alike,  was  able  to  make  de- 
tailed notes  on  buildings  difficult  of  access,  and  to 
visit  almost  all  the  holes  dug  in  the  precious  debris  of 
Jerusalem  during  a  long  series  of  years.  ^     Here  are 

'  Dr.  Schick  wrote  much  for  the  journal  of  the  German  Society 
also. 


264  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

the  narratives  of  Dr.  Post's  botanical  tours.  Here 
are  the  notes  on  folk-lore  made  by  Mr.  Baldensper- 
ger,  bee-keeper  in  the  land  of  the  Philistines.  Here 
are  the  meteorological  tables  of  the  late  chairman  of 
the  Executive  Committee,  Mr.  Glaisher.i 

The  fuller  title  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund 
is :  A  Society  for  the  Accurate  and  Systematic  Inves- 
tigation of  the  Archaeology,  the  Topography,  the 
Geology  and  Physical  Geography,  the  Manners  and 
Customs  of  the  Holy  Land  for  Biblical  Illustration. 
The  attempts  that  have  been  made  to  carry  out  the 
main  items  of  this  programme  we  may  now  illustrate 
by  a  rapid  review  of  the  chief  expeditions  sent  out 
during  the  last  forty  years.  The  fact  of  my  con- 
nection with  three  of  these  must  naturally  condition 
my  treatment  of  them  all.  The  allotment  of  consid- 
erable space  to  my  own  work  does  violence  to  my 
theoretical  sense  of  proportion,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  practical  side  of  exploration  can  best  be  illustrated 
by  personal  experience,  even  when  the  range  of  this 
is  limited.  In  treating  of  the  work  of  those  whom, 
in  a  broad  sense,  I  have  the  honor  to  call  my  col- 
leagues, the  attempt  will  be  made  to  follow  a  method 
descriptive  rather  than  critical. 

Six  months  after  the  founding  of  the  Society  the 
first  expedition  was  organized  under  the  command 
of  Captain  (now  General  Sir  Charles)  Wilson,  who, 
in  the  interests  of  a  scheme  for  bringing  water  to  the 
city,   had  just  completed  the  Ordnance  Survey  of 

'  Our  account  of  the  organization  and  early  history  of  the  Fund 
is  based  mainly  on  Thirty  Years'  Work  :  a  Memoir  of  the  Work  of 
tiie  Society,  by  Sir  Walter  Besant.     P.  E.  F. 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      265 

Jerusalem.  1  He  was  accompanied  by  Lieutenant 
Anderson.  While  the  principal  object  of  this  expe- 
dition, which  was  in  the  field  from  December,  1865, 
to  May,  1866,  was  to  indicate  spots  for  further 
investigation,  several  definite  results  were  obtained. 
A  series  of  reconnoissance  maps  was  formed,  on 
the  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  mile,  showing  the 
whole  backbone  of  the  country.  An  especial  study 
was  made  of  the  Synagogues  noticed  in  Galilee 
by  Robinson,  but  inadequately  described  by  him. 
Excavations  were  made  on  Mt.  Gerizim,  where 
were  laid  bare  the  foundations  of  an  octagonal 
church,  built  in  turn  on  a  rough  platform  which 
may  possibly  be  that  on  which  the  Samaritan 
Temple  stood. 

When  Lieutenant — now  General  Sir  Charles — 
Warren  left  England  in  1867,  it  was  the  hope  of  the 
Committee  that  the  two  main  problems  connected 
with  Jerusalem  topography  would  be  settled  once 
for  all:  namely,  the  exact  position  of  the  Temple 
within  the  walls  of  the  present  Haram  enclosure, 
and  the  course  of  the  three  northern  walls  of  the 
ancient  city,  so  closely  connected  with  the  discussion 
of  the  site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  But  owing  to 
the  tremendous  convulsions  which  the  Holy  City  has 
suffered  during  the  course  of  the  ages ;  to  the  jeal- 
ous care  with  which  the  Moslems  guard  their  sacred 
sites ;  and  to  the  impossibility  of  making  systematic 
excavations  under  modern  constructions — the  data 
for  solving  these  problems  were  either  destroyed  or 
unavailable.     Warren  came  and  went,   but  Wilson 

'  See  Thirty  Yt-ars'  Work,  p.  42. 


266  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

still  holds  to  Fergusson's  theory  of  the  site  of  the 
Temple  at  the  southwest  corner  of  the  enclosure,  as 
over  against  a  position  near  the  present  Mosque  of 
Omar.  Warren  came  and  went,  and  controversial- 
ists still  draw  the  second  wall  in  a  line  to  include  or 
to  exclude  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  as  may 
best  suit  the  theory  held. 

But  wherever  may  have  been  the  exact  site  of  the 
Temple  itself,  Warren  left  no  doubt  as  to  the  soHd- 
ity  and  splendor  of  the  Temple  enclosure.  In  achiev- 
ing his  results  he  was  engaged  in  a  constant  strife 
with  man  and  matter.  The  Governor  interposed 
almost  daily  obstacles.  The  soil  burying  the  Temple 
walls  consisted  of  the  most  treacherous  debris.  The 
first  difficulty  he  combated  by  robust  diplomacy;  the 
second,  by  daring  engineering.  By  an  extraordinary 
series  of  shafts  and  tunnels  he  proved  that  in  many 
cases  the  enclosing  walls  descend  from  80  to  125 
feet  below  the  present  surface.  So  secure  were 
made  these  galleries  by  wooden  frames,  that  numer- 
ous travellers  were  able  to  touch  the  massive  founda- 
tion-stones and  to  wonder  at  the  graffiti  in  Semitic 
characters  scratched  on  these  ages  ago.  Measure- 
ments were  taken  to  the  fraction  of  an  inch ;  minute 
variations  in  stone-dressing  were  noted;  every  clew 
that  might  point  to  the  chronology  of  the  construc- 
tion was  followed  up.  This,  however,  was  not  set- 
tled in  a  way  to  satisfy  all  experts.  Warren  him- 
self, for  example,  saw  grounds  for  referring  parts  of 
the  south  and  west  walls  to  the  Solomonic  era,  parts 
to  the  Herodian.  Conder  thinks  that  the  founda- 
tions of  the  entire  structure,  except  at  the  north- 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      267 

east  angle  of  the  present  Haram  Court,  represent 
the  Herodian  period. 

But  Warren's  activity  was  not  confined  to  the 
Temple  enclosure.  Following  up  the  clews  given 
by  Robinson's  Arch,  he  laid  bare  further  remains  of 
the  viaduct  once  connecting  the  Temple  with  the 
Western  Hill.  The  wall  of  Ophel  abutting  on  to 
the  southeast  angle  of  the  enclosure  was  traced  for 
over  800  feet ;  various  ancient  aqueducts  outside  the 
city  were  followed  and  measured;  rock-levels  were 
ascertained  at  numerous  points;  and  small  excava- 
tions were  made  within  the  city  where  my  later  per- 
mit did  not  allow  me  to  work.  Apart  from  the 
Jerusalem  investigations,  a  rapid  reconnoissance  Sur- 
vey was  made  through  the  country,  and  cuttings 
were  made  in  the  Jericho  mounds. 

In  "  The  Recovery  of  Jerusalem,"  edited  in  1870 
by  Walter  Morrison,  M.P.,  Honorary  Treasurer  of 
the  Fund,  may  be  found  Warren's  report,  prepared 
under  heavy  pressure  immediately  on  his  return  to 
England,  while  suffering  from  fever  and  exhaustion. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  his  work  should  have  first 
been  known  through  this  medium.  In  a  narrative 
compiled  under  such  circumstances  we  are  not  sur- 
prised to  find  a  mass  of  undigested  material — a  sort 
of  patchwork  made  up  chiefly  of  extracts  from  his 
own  letters,  in  which  the  record  of  shafts  and  tunnels 
alternates  with  personal  details  of  no  scientific  rele- 
vance. ^     It  was  not  till  1884  that  the  results  of  his 

'  In  a  popular  work  called  Underground  Jerusalem,  "Warren 
complains  with  some  bitterness  of  bis  having  been  obliged  to  pre- 
pare this  abbreviated  report. 


268  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

splendid  work  appeared  in  adequate  scientific  form, 
in  his  own  contribution  to  the  Jerusalem  Volume  of 
the  Survey  of  Western  Palestine.  This  was  accom- 
panied by  a  portfolio  of  plans,  greatly  supplement- 
ing those  published  in  connection  with  the  earlier 
work. 

The  onerous  task  of  surveying  Western  Palestine 
on  the  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  mile  was  undertaken 
in  1871  by  the  advice  of  Wilson,  Warren,  and  An- 
derson. In  other  words,  it  was  determined  by  the 
Committee  to  substitute  an  actual  Survey  for  the 
numerous  reconnoissances  that  had  previously  been 
made.  The  best  map  then  available  was  that  of 
Van  de  Velde,  which  combined  the  results  of  his  own 
observations  with  those  of  former  cartographers. 
These,  however,  had  not  been  made  with  scientific 
precision.  On  Van  de  Velde 's  map  the  hill-shading 
was  merely  sketched  in,  the  courses  of  the  valleys 
were  laid  down  roughly,  the  position  of  sites  had  been 
determined  mainly  by  the  reckoning  of  time  taken 
in  passing  from  place  to  place.  But  the  information 
thus  furnished  was  not  only  indefinite  in  character: 
it  was  limited  in  extent.  The  whole  number  of  place- 
names  indicated  upon  it  amounted  to  about  1,800. 
How  vast  a  labor  lay  before  the  Survey  Officers  the 
reader  may  gather  from  the  statement  that  for  every 
name  found  on  Van  de  Velde 's  map,  they  were  des- 
tined to  collect  five. 

The  chronicle  of  the  Survey  is  briefly  told.  The 
party,  landing  in  Palestine  in  1871,  consisted  of 
Captain  Stewart,  R.E.,  officer  in  command,  with 
Sergeant  Black  and  Cur})oral   Armstrong  as  staff"- 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      269 

assistants;  and  of  Mr.  Tyrwhitt  Drake,  Archaeol- 
ogist, fresh  from  the  exploration  of  the  Desert  of 
the  Exodus,  which,  in  company  with  the  Arabic 
scholar.  Professor  Palmer,  he  had  traversed  on  foot, 
for  the  Fund.i  While  measuring  the  base-line  on 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  Captain  Stewart  was  struck 
down  by  fever  and  invalided  home.  The  work, 
however,  suffered  Httle  interruption.  When  Cap- 
tain Conder  arrived  in  July,  1872,  to  replace  Cap- 
tain Stewart,  he  found  that  500  square  miles  had 
been  surveyed  with  a  thoroughness  that  left  un- 
noticed nothing  of  value  in  the  district.  For  over 
three  years  Conder  labored  with  hardly  a  break, 
except  for  a  three-months'  hoKday  in  1874,  when  he 
was  obliged  to  recruit  his  health  by  a  trip  home. 
In  July  of  the  next  year  the  work  came  to  an  abrupt 
stop  in  consequence  of  an  attack  made  on  the  party 
at  Safed.  Soon  after,  cholera  breaking  out,  the  ex- 
plorers left  for  England.  Four-fifths  of  the  Survey 
was  then  complete.  The  remaining  portion  was 
accompHshed  in  the  year  1877-78  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Captain  (now  Lord)  Kitchener,  who  had 
joined  the  earlier  expedition  after  the  death  of  Mr. 
Drake  in  1874.  The  great  map,  published  in  1880, 
extends  over  an  area  of  6,000  square  miles,  from  a 
point  near  Tyre  to  the  Egyptian  Desert,  from  the 
Jordan  to  the  Mediterranean. 

This  Survey  remains  the  monumental  work  of  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  too 
much  to  say,  with  Sir  Walter  Besant,  "that  nothing 
has  ever  been  done  for  the  illustration  and   right 

'  See  Q.  S.,  Jan.,  1871. 


270  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

understanding  of  the  historical  portions  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  since  the  translation  into  the 
Vulgar  tongue,  which  may  be  compared  with  this 
great  work."  The  successful  attempt  to  approxi- 
mate in  Palestine  the  accuracy  of  the  Ordnance  Sur- 
vey of  England  involved  the  overcoming  of  obstacles 
non-existent  in  the  home-land.  Passing  over  the 
matters  of  a  strange  climate,  of  transportation  and 
commissariat,  of  a  population  whose  suspicions  were 
aroused  by  the  mere  sight  of  scientific  instruments, 
we  may  signalize  the  difficulty  of  correctly  ascertain- 
ing place-names  previously  quite  unknown  except 
to  the  people  of  the  land.  Colonel  Conder  states 
that  he  had  to  contend  not  only  against  ignorance 
and  fanatical  feeling,  but  sometimes  also  against  a 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  Fellahin  to  substitute 
for  the  real  name  of  a  ruin  an  appellation  caught 
from  some  European  bound  to  exploit  an  identifica- 
tion. 

Notwithstanding  the  mistakes  that  occur  among 
the  9,000  Arabic  names  collected,  the  list  contains 
a  vast  treasure-chamber  of  Biblical  nomenclature. 
Conder  proposed  many  new  identifications.  Some 
of  them  have  been  disputed ;  others  will  be  disputed 
in  the  future.  But  in  proposing,  in  a  given  case, 
an  alternative  site,  the  disputant  may  find  his  first 
clew  in  a  study  of  this  very  list. 

The  publication  of  the  great  map  was  followed  by 
that  of  the  explanatory  Memoirs.  ^  While  all  topo- 
graphical work  undertaken  previously  to  the  Survey 
was  but  a  preparation  for  this  great  map,  which  has, 

'  The  Survey  of  Western  Palestine  (7  volumes).     P.  E.  F. 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      271 

as  it  were,  spoken  the  final  word,  we  are  bound  to 
state  that  the  sections  in  the  Memoirs  dealing  with 
archaeology  may  be  regarded  in  general  as  recon- 
noissance  work.  This  is  no  more  than  might  have 
been  expected.  It  was  one  thing  to  fix  the  position 
of  hundreds  of  ruins ;  it  was  quite  another  to  examine 
each  one  of  these  exhaustively.  The  unequal  charac- 
ter of  the  work  in  this  department  has  been  indicated 
in  a  former  lecture  where  we  compared  it,  not  un- 
favorabTy,  with  that  of  Guerin.i 

In  1881  the  Committee  despatched  Conder  to  effect 
the  Survey  of  Eastern  Palestine  on  the  same  scale 
with  that  of  Western  Palestine.  The  attempt  to  make 
the  old  Firman  serve  for  the  new  work  was  unsuc- 
cessful, and  after  a  campaign  of  ten  weeks,  during 
which  500  square  miles  were  covered,  the  party  was 
obliged  to  withdraw. ^  What  an  especial  expedition 
was  unable  to  do,  has,  however,  been  largely  accom- 
plished during  the  last  twenty  years  by  the  work  of  a 
single  individual,  exploring  sometimes  for  the  Fund, 
sometimes  for  the  German  Exploration  Society,  some- 
times under  other  auspices.  Dr.  Gottlieb  Schu- 
macher, of  Haifa,  illustrates  the  great  advantages 
for  exploration  enjoyed  by  a  foreign  resident  who  has 
an  organic  connection  with  the  life  of  the  Holy  Land. 
Officially  recognized  as  an  engineer  surveying  for  a 
proposed  railway,  he  was  able  as  early  as  1885  to  be- 
gin a  series  of  maps  which  now  cover  almost  all  the 
trans-Jordanic  districts.     Part  of  the  work  is  still 

'  In  Tent  Work  in  Palestine,  Conder  presented  the  story  of  the 
Survey  in  popular  form. 

*The  Survey  of  Eastern  Palestine  (1  volume),  by  C.  R. 
Conder.     P.  E.F. 


272  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

mere  reconnoissance,  but  for  accuracy  of  detail  and 
extent  of  archaeological  information  his  labors  in  the 
district  of  'Ajlun  are  comparable  to  those  of  the  Sur- 
veyors of  Western  Palestine.  As  Dr.  Schumacher 
is  still  in  the  prime  of  life,  we  may  hope  that  the 
whole  territory  will  be  surveyed  with  similar  detail. 
The  Archaeological  Mission  intrusted  to  M.  Cler- 
mont Ganneau  in  1873-74,  while  the  Survey  of  West- 
ern Palestine  was  going  on,  was  very  general  in  its 
nature.  Several  years  before,  while  connected  with 
the  French  Consulate  at  Jerusalem,  he  had  shown 
great  energy  in  the  unfortunate  matter  of  the  Moab- 
ite  Stone,  It  was  owing  to  his  efforts  that  the 
larger  fragments  left  after  its  wanton  demolition  by 
the  Arabs  were  finally  secured  for  the  Louvre.  For 
a  year  and  ten  days  M.  Ganneau,  notwithstanding 
the  embarrassment  consequent  upon  the  non-arrival 
of  the  expected  Firman,  attempted  to  follow  up  every 
clew  he  could  gather  from  the  natives  which  might 
lead  to  discoveries  in  Jerusalem  and  the  vicinity.  He 
also  examined  with  some  minuteness  the  region  be- 
tween Jaffa  and  Jerusalem,  and  made  an  excursion 
to  Samaria  and  thence  to  Gaza.  The  somewhat  mis- 
cellaneous results  of  these  investigations,  pubhshed  at 
first  in  the  Quarterly  Statement,  may  now  most  con- 
veniently be  read  in  his  ' '  Archaeological  Researches 
in  Palestine,"  in  two  volumes,  which  appeared  in 
1896  and  1899,  or  twenty-two  and  twenty-five  years 
respectively  after  the  date  of  his  Mission.  Prominent 
among  these  were  the  studies  of  Crusading  Mason 
Marks;  the  discovery  of  the  Gezer  boundary-stones; 
the  examination  of  various  ancient  cemeteries;  and 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      273 

explorations  in  the  interior  of  the  Haram,  where  he 
was  accorded  especial  facilities. 

In  the  winter  of  1883-84  a  geological  Survey  of 
the  Wady-el-'Arabah  and  adjacent  districts  was  con- 
ducted by  Prof.  Edward  Hull.  Major  Kitchener, 
who  accompanied  his  party,  made  a  complete  trian- 
gulation  of  the  district  lying  between  the  Mountains 
of  Sinai  and  the  Wady-el-'Arabah,  together  with  that 
of  the  Wady-el-'Arabah  itself,  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  table-land  of  the  Tih  and  on  the  east  by  the 
mountains  of  Edom  and  Moab.i 

With  the  consent  of  Dr.  Flinders  Petrie  to  leave 
for  a  brief  period  his  Egyptian  field  of  research,  the 
work  of  Palestine  Exploration  entered  upon  a  new 
phase.  Whether  Petrie  was  or  was  not  actually  the 
founder  of  the  school  in  whose  view  no  ancient  object, 
however  humble,  is  negligible,  he  is  certainly  its 
most  notable  exponent.  In  1890,  after  a  long  period 
of  disappointment,  the  Fund  was  in  possession  of  an 
Imperial  permit  authorizing  excavations  for  two  years 
in  a  district  of  Southern  Palestine  rich  in  ruins. 
Among  these  were  Khurbet  'Ajlan,  identified  on 
onomastic  grounds  with  Eglon ;  and  Umm  Lakis  and 
Tell-el-Hesy,  claimants  for  the  site  of  Lachish.  Con- 
vinced after  a  brief  examination  that  the  remains  at 
the  two  former  sites  had  neither  the  extent  nor  the 
antiquity  to  warrant  identification  with  towns  im- 
portant in  early  history,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
the  mound  of  Tell-ol-Hesy,  which,  to  the  eye  of  most 
travellers,  counterfeited  a  natural  hill,  but  which  to 

'  Soo  The  Geology  of  Palestine  and  Arabia  Petrjea,  by  Prof.  E. 
Iluii. 


274  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

his  trained  vision  promised  rich  results  even  before 
systematic  excavations  were  begun.  Pocket-knife 
in  hand,  he  climbed  the  steep  slope  to  the  east, 
where,  owing  to  the  encroachment  of  the  stream 
during  the  course  of  ages,  a  section  of  the  artificial 
mound  had  been  practically  laid  bare.  The  story  of 
the  site  was  suggested  in  outHne  by  fragments  of 
pottery  of  various  ages,  some  strewing  the  surface, 
others  dislodged  from  the  side,  as  well  as  by  the  indi- 
cations of  strong  walls  of  mud-brick  not  easily  to  be 
distinguished  by  the  ordinary  observer  from  natural 
un worked  soil,  but  clear  enough  to  Petrie's  eye,  and 
clearer  still  after  a  little  scraping  with  the  pocket- 
knife.  This  story,  thus  early  hinted,  grew  daily 
clearer  through  the  course  of  a  brilliant  campaign  of 
six  weeks,  during  which  Dr.  Petrie  personally  super- 
intended the  trench-work  of  some  thirty  diggers. 
When  these  deserted  him  for  the  joys  of  the  harvest, 
our  archaeologist,  relying  for  his  chronological  data 
chiefly  on  the  pottery,  was  in  a  position  to  maintain 
that  Tell-el-Hesy  represented  the  site  of  a  strongly 
fortified  town,  founded  in  the  dim  ages  before  the 
Hebrew  conquest,  and  occupied  with  more  or  less 
continuity  almost  until  the  period  of  the  Seleucidan 
Kings.  In  other  words,  the  history  of  the  place  was 
found  to  run  parallel  with  that  of  Lachish,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, the  arguments  for  their  identity,  strong 
before  the  excavations,  were  placed  on  a  firm  ar- 
chaeological basis.  1 

Bearing  away  with  native  modesty  his  rapidly  won 
Palestinian  laurels,  Petrie  returned  to  his  preferred 

'  Lachish,  by  Prof.  Flinders  Petrie.     P.  E.  F. 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      275 

sphere  of  Egyptian  research,  leaving  the  Committee 
of  the  Fund  with  a  permit  to  dig  on  their  hands.  In 
honoring  me  with  the  appointment  to  carry  on 
Petrie's  work  at  Lachish,  the  Committee  made  it 
easier  for  me  to  accept  this  by  sending  me  to  Egypt 
for  a  short  apprenticeship  to  my  predecessor,  in  the 
art  of  practical  digging.  As  the  site  had  yielded  up 
all  the  secrets  that  could  be  extracted  by  trench- 
work,  Petrie  pointed  out  that  there  was  nothing  left 
for  me  to  do  but  to  cut  down  the  mound  itself,  layer 
by  layer,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  number  of  the  oc- 
cupations and  the  character  of  each.  Accordingly, 
one  spring  day  in  the  year  1891  found  me  pacing  the 
lofty  top  of  Tell-el-Hesy,  estimating  the  amount  of 
time  it  would  take  to  investigate,  with  the  minute- 
ness, which  I  had  learned  to  be  the  digger's  only  sal- 
vation, the  mass  of  debris  accumulated  to  a  height  of 
some  sixty  feet  on  the  natural  bluff,  itself  also  rising 
some  sixty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  stream-bed. 
That  this  could  not  be  accomplished  in  the  time  still 
available,  including  the  year's  extension  of  the  permit 
which  the  law  allowed,  became  evident  at  once.  My 
plans,  then,  were  modified  by  the  decision  to  confine 
the  work  to  the  northeast  part  of  the  hill,  where  al- 
most one-third  of  each  town  could  be  examined  in  an 
area  enclosing  portions  of  the  ramparts.  When  I  rode 
away  from  the  site  almost  two  years  later,  the  hill 
j)resented  an  appearance  to  startle  the  unwary  geolo- 
gist. The  northeast  corner  had  been  shifted  down 
sixty  feet,  and  reappeared  in  slopes  of  earth  above  the 
stream-bed  to  the  east  and  the  barley-field  to  the 
north.     This  earth  (over  700,000  cubic  foot)  repre- 


276  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

sented  the  material  out  of  which  had  been  built  suc- 
cessively eight  mud-brick  towns,  all  bearing  the  name 
of  Lachish,  and  covering  a  period  of  over  1,200 
years.  A  plan  of  the  excavated  area  of  every  town — 
its  ramparts,  houses,  granaries,  etc. — had  been  made 
previous  to  its  piecemeal  removal  in  baskets.  Pend- 
ing the  development  of  the  law  of  the  X-rays  or  the 
practical  application  of  the  mysterious  fourth  dimen- 
sion, such  piecemeal  removal  of  a  town  is  the  only 
possible  condition  for  the  exhaustive  examination  of 
an  underlying  occupation.  Two  cliffs,  at  the  limits 
of  the  excavated  area,  furnished  corroborative  evi- 
dence to  the  testimony  of  the  plans,  by  revealing  at 
various  heights  sections  of  walls  that  had  been  cut 
through.  The  varying  civilizations  had  been  illus- 
trated by  various  finds  in  stone,  earthen-ware,  bronze, 
iron,  and  paste.  A  cuneiform  tablet  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  B.C.,  linked  the  place  with  Tell-el-Amarna 
in  Egypt.  The  objects  in  pottery  illustrated  the 
development  of  ceramic  art  from  early  pre-Israelite 
to  Greek  times.  In  a  word,  while  the  results  of  my 
long  campaign  were  naturally  far  richer  than  those 
of  Dr.  Petrie's  reconnoissance,  they  did  not  materially 
alter  his  conclusions.  ^ 

The  next  campaign,  conducted  at  Jerusalem  by 
myself,  with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  A.  C.  Dickie,  in- 
volved phases  of  digging  quite  other  than  those  which 
had  confronted  me  at  Tell-el-Hesy.  At  the  latter 
place,  the  simple  decision  made  before  ground  was 
broken  sufficed  for  two  years.  The  plan  to  cut  down 
one-third  of  the  mound  had  merely  to  be  carried  out. 

'  A  Mound  of  Many  Cities;  or,  Tt'U-oi-IIesy  Excavated,  by  F.  J. 
Bliss,     r.  E.  F. 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      277 

No  new  major  problem  arose.  Within  the  circum- 
scribed field  of  excavation,  of  course,  minor  problems 
demanded  constant  attention ;  notably,  the  necessity 
of  distinguishing  between  mud-brick  in  situ  and  mud- 
brick  fallen  or  decayed.  In  other  words,  we  had  to 
guard  against  the  constant  danger  of  confounding 
portions  of  buildings  still  standing  with  the  similar 
material  in  which  they  were  buried,  and  which,  indeed, 
had  once  formed  component  parts  thereof.  During 
the  course  of  our  three  years'  work  at  Jerusalem 
(1894-97),  however,  fresh  problems  arose  with  the 
striking  of  every  fresh  clew.  Our  field  of  actual  ex- 
cavation was  indeed  limited,  in  the  main,  to  the  slopes 
of  the  hills  to  the  south  of  the  present  city  wall,  but 
in  tracing  the  ancient  south  walls  at  various  periods, 
and  in  following  up  accidental  discoveries  made  in 
connection  with  our  chief  work,  we  never  could  pre- 
dict in  what  exact  portion  of  this  large  area  we  might 
soon  be  called  upon  to  break  ground.  Once,  in  open- 
ing up  a  new  shaft  in  a  field  under  which  a  portion 
of  the  city  wall  was  buried,  I  was  asked  by  the  peas- 
ant proprietor  :  ' '  How  long  will  you  be  working 
here?"  "Perhaps  only  three  days,  perhaps  three 
months,"  was  my  answer.  My  uncertainty  was 
based  on  experience.  While  tracing  a  line  of  wall 
near  the  Pool  of  Siloam  we  came  across  an  ancient 
stairway  of  noble  proportions  leading  down  to  the 
Pool.  The  following  of  this  clew  led  to  the  striking 
of  others,  which  had  in  turn  to  be  followed  up.  Thus 
weeks  were  devoted  to  the  excavation  of  an  early 
church  which  had  been  built  down  over  a  portion  of 
the  neglected  stairway. 


278  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

Again,  at  Tell-el-Hesy  we  were  always  working 
in  the  open  air ;  at  Jerusalem  our  diggers  were  rarely 
above  ground.  It  was  always  imperative  to  ex- 
amine the  foundations  of  a  given  wall,  and  as  these 
were  usually  buried  under  a  mass  of  debris,  we  were 
obliged  to  pursue  the  system  of  tunnelling  practised 
by  Sir  Charles  Warren.  This  debris,  which  may 
be  termed  Ancient  Jerusalem  in  Decay,  was  found 
to  vary  greatly  in  character.  Sometimes  shale  and 
chippings,  pouring  down  from  the  roof  of  the  tunnel, 
rendered  the  latter  so  unsafe  that  it  had  to  be  aban- 
doned. Usually,  however,  danger  of  caving-in  could 
be  averted  by  the  use  of  wooden  frames.  And  some- 
times the  made  soil  consisted  of  earth  so  compact 
and  solidified  that  for  scores  of  yards  no  protection 
was  used  at  all.  When  the  rock  sloped,  the  tunnel 
had  to  be  bored  up  or  down  hill,  as  the  case  might 
be.  When  the  air  became  foul,  a  fresh  shaft  had  to 
be  opened  up  farther  along  the  line.  Near  the  open 
drain,  which  pours  its  inky  fluid  into  the  Lower  Pool 
of  Siloam,  the  oozing  galleries  had  to  be  sprinkled 
with  carbolic  acid,  to  the  discomfiture  of  the  long  line 
of  basket-boys,  who  declared  a  preference  for  the  more 
natural  conditions.  Our  deepest  shaft  was  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  Tyropoean  Valley,  where  rock  was  reached 
at  seventy  feet  from  the  surface.  Our  most  difficult 
shaft  was  sunk  against  the  wall  crossing  the  valley 
below  the  Old  Pool,  where  the  work  took  the  form  of 
quarrying  away  a  solid  retaining  wall  built  against 
the  original  rampart. 

This  is  no  place  for  exploiting  the  reasons  which 
led  to  our  assigning  one  rampart  to  one  period,  one 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      279 

to  another.  Briefly  we  may  state,  that  of  the  three 
distinct  hnes  which  we  traced  on  the  south  slopes,  the 
first  appears  to  us  to  antedate  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Titus — parts  of  it  to  antedate  Nehemiah; 
the  second  is  apparently  the  wall  of  the  Empress  Eu- 
docia,  who,  in  the  fifth  century,  included  the  Pool  of 
Siloam  within  the  city;  and  the  third,  undoubtedly 
mediaeval,  appears  to  be  that  which  occurs  on  the 
map  of  Marino  Sanuto,  a.d.  1321.  i 

While  long  portions  of  these  walls  were  traced, 
their  ruin  was  proved  to  be  complete  at  several 
points.  How  to  regain  a  lost  clew  was  always  an 
anxious  problem.  In  one  case  this  was  at  our  dis- 
posal some  days  before  we  suspected  it.  In  cleaning 
out  an  ancient  drain,  cut  like  a  trench  in  the  rock,  but 
roofed  by  covers,  we  were  obliged  to  secure  fresh  air 
from  time  to  time  by  sinking  new  shafts  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  removing  the  slabs.  One  day, 
in  re-examining  the  shafts,  I  noticed  that  in  one  or 
two  cases  the  slabs  had  not  only  covered  the  drain,  but 
extended  to  one  side  or  the  other.  Here,  then,  was  a 
simple  clew  for  finding  the  lost  wall :  the  drain  clearly 
ran  under  a  paved  street ;  the  paved  street  was  doubt- 
less within  the  city;  followed  in  the  right  direction, 
it  must  lead  to  a  gate ;  to  discover  a  gate  would  be  to 
rediscover  the  wall.  And  so  the  matter  turned  out. 
In  another  case  the  loss  of  clew  was  due  not  to  the 
destruction  of  the  wall,  but  to  its  disappearance  under 
a  modern  Jewish  cemetery,  where  excavation  was,  of 
course,  impossible.     Would  it  reappear  on  the  other 

'  Excavations  at  JiTusaleni,  lSl>4-97,  by  F.  J.  Bliss;  plans  and 
illustrations  hy  A.  C.  Dickie.     P.  E.  V. 


280  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

side,  and  if  so,  where?  Fortunately  the  Hne  ran  on 
unaltered  in  direction,  and  was  recovered  in  a  trench 
at  the  point  hoped  for.  Identity  was  proved  by 
comparison  of  the  character  of  the  stone-dressing  of 
the  two  portions,  as  well  as  of  their  thickness.  Again, 
the  clew  was  rendered  uncertain  for  the  moment  by 
the  objections  of  a  Moslem  proprietor  to  our  digging 
in  his  field.  Regaining  it  in  the  field  beyond,  we 
were  able  to  push  ahead.  But  when,  months  later, 
we  came  to  terms  with  the  Moslem  gentleman,  the 
portion  of  wall  temporarily  neglected  proved  to  be 
of  prime  importance  in  determining  chronological 
questions. 

In  the  autumn  of  1898  a  two-years'  permit  was 
available  for  the  excavation  of  several  sites  in  the 
Shephelah,  that  once-debated  ground  between  the 
Hebrews  and  the  Phihstines.  My  associate  for  this 
campaign  was  Mr.  R.  A.  S.  Macalister.  Unfortunate- 
ly, the  investigation  of  the  chief  problem  set  before 
us  by  the  Committee — namely,  the  identification  of 
Tell-es-Safi  with  Gath — was  hampered  by  the  modern 
encumbrances  of  the  site — a  village,  a  Moslem  shrine, 
and  a  cemetery — which  preempted  a  large  part  of  the 
area.  However,  the  excavations  which  we  were  able 
to  make  were,  on  the  whole,  favorable  to  the  identi- 
fication. We  proved  that  the  place  was  certainly  as 
old  and  as  important  as  Gath,  and  that  its  fortifica- 
tions, traced  in  detail,  probably  date  from  Jewish 
times  when  Gath  had  a  city  wall.  At  a  depth  of 
twenty  feet  we  found  a  heathen  ' '  High  Place  ' '  of 
pre-Israelite  times — three  monoliths,  still  upright,  in 
a  line  running  east  and  west,  enclosed  by  rude  walls, 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      281 

possibly  of  a  temple.  We  came  across  an  ancient 
rubbish  heap  containing  objects  of  various  periods 
— statuettes,  pottery,  scarabs,  beads,  amulets,  etc. 
The  site  was  especially  rich  in  pottery  illustrating 
the  period  prior  to  the  invasion  of  the  Hebrews. 

Excavations  were  also  conducted  at  three  other 
mounds.  At  Tell-Zakariya — probably  the  ancient 
Azekah — was  uncovered  a  large  fortress,  possibly 
the  work  of  Rehoboam,  who  fortified  the  towns  of 
this  district.  At  Tell-ej-Judeideh  (unidentified)  the 
city  wall  traced  all  around  the  summit  was  of  Greek 
or  Roman  date,  but  an  examination  of  the  soil  at 
different  points  within  the  enclosure  resulted  in  con- 
siderable additions  to  our  stock  of  Jewish  pottery. 
Under  the  crop  of  Indian  corn  covering  the  summit 
of  Tell-Sandahannah  we  traced  the  foundations  of 
the  little  Greek  town  of  Marissa  which  overlie  the 
Jewish  Mareshah.  For  a  short  period,  before  we 
were  obliged  to  restore  the  ground  to  the  state  in 
which  we  found  it,  visitors  could  pass  within  the 
town  wall  by  the  gate-way,  wander  from  street  to 
street,  make  out  the  pubhc  buildings,  and  examine  the 
courts  and  chambers  of  private  dwellings.  Seleu- 
cidan  pottery  was  found  in  large  quantities.  The 
importance  attached  to  malignant  magic  in  the  second 
and  third  centuries  B.C.  was  illustrated  by  impreca- 
tory tablets,  and  "revenge-dolls  "  consisting  of  small 
lead  figures  shackled  with  chains,  and  doubtless  once 
named  after  enemies,  who  were  supposed  thereby  to 
become  the  victims  of  similar  tortures.  Important 
among  the  features  of  the  g(iiieral  campaign  was  the 
detailed  examination  by  Mr.  Macalister  of  numerous 


282  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

examples  of  the  subterranean  rock-chambers  with 
which  the  Shephelah  is  honey-combed.  ^ 

It  is  too  early  adequately  to  characterize  the  cam- 
paign of  Abu  Shusheh — the  ancient  Gezer — begun 
by  Mr.  MacaHster  in  1902,  and  only  just  closed  at 
date  of  writing.  From  his  reports  we  gather  that 
the  memoir  of  his  work  will  yield  in  interest  and 
importance  to  no  other  account  of  Palestine  excava- 
tions. He  has  followed  the  fortunes  of  Gezer  from 
dim  antiquity  down  through  the  Maccabean  period. 
The  early  Semitic  High  Place  is  far  more  elaborate 
than  that  discovered  at  Tell-es-Safi.  The  jar  depos- 
its prove  that  the  inhabitants  of  this  period  sacri- 
ficed infants.  The  city  walls  with  gates  have  been 
traced  through  several  periods.  A  large  Maccabean 
castle  has  been  planned.  Among  the  numerous  ob- 
jects discovered  are  two  cuneiform  tablets  (frag- 
ments) of  the  seventh  century  B.C. 

With  this  brief  review  of  the  work  thus  far  com- 
pleted by  the  first  established  and  most  practical  of 
the  organizations  for  the  scientific  examination  of  the 
Holy  Land,  we  propose  to  close  our  sketch  of  the 
Development  of  Palestine  Exploration.  No  different 
principles  of  research  have  been  enunciated  or  illus- 
trated in  other  quarters.  To  record  the  solid  results 
of  individual  efforts  along  parallel  lines  during  the 
last  forty  years  is  a  task  beyond  our  present  purpose. 
Appropriate,  however,  it  will  be  to  append  to  this 
lecture  a  brief  notice  of  other  agencies  organized  with 
a  view  to  the  exploration  of  Palestine. 

•  Excavations  in  Palestine,  1898-1900,  by  F.  J.  Bliss  and  K.  A.  S. 
Macalister.     P.  E.  F. 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      283 

The  story  of  the  short-lived  American  Palestine 
Exploration  Society,  organized  in  1870  for  the  de- 
tailed Survey  of  Eastern  Palestine,  may  be  gathered 
from  its  four  published  statements  (1871-77).  Its 
failure  to  accomplish  its  purpose  appears  to  have 
been  due  to  lack  of  financial  support,  as  well  as  to 
lack  of  harmony  between  the  conductors  of  the  Sur- 
vey and  the  home  committee.  Relations  with  the 
English  Fund  were,  however,  perfectly  friendly,  as 
evidenced  by  a  letter  to  the  American  Committee, 
written  by  the  Archbishop  of  York,  President  of  the 
older  Society.  Two  Surveys  of  a  preliminary  nature 
were  made:  one  by  Lieutenant  Steever  in  1873;  the 
other  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Lane  in  1875.  With  the  second 
expedition  Dr.  Selah  Merrill  was  associated  as 
archaeologist.  In  December  of  the  same  year  he  was 
placed  in  control  of  the  exploration  work.  In  his 
"East  of  the  Jordan,"  which  appears  to  be  the 
only  direct  literary  result  of  the  Society's  labor,  are 
to  be  found  the  accounts  of  two  out  of  four  expedi- 
tions undertaken  by  him  in  1875-77. 

The  German  Society — Deutscher  Palastina  Verein 
— was  definitely  constituted  on  September  28,  1877, 
much  on  the  lines  of  the  English  Fund.  Accurate 
scientific  research  in  all  branches  was  contemplated 
by  inviting  the  co-operation  of  German  colonists,  by 
urging  travellers  in  Palestine  to  take  an  interest  in 
certain  definite  questions,  and  by  sending  out  especial 
expeditions.  The  first  number  of  the  Zeitschrift,  the 
Society's  journal,  appeared  in  1878.  As  an  inter- 
pretative record  of  discoveries  made  in  every  depart- 
ment, whether  by  its  own  agents  or  by  other  indi- 


284:  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

viduals,  this  journal  is  indispensable  to  the  Biblical 
student.  Much  exploring  work  has  been  done  east 
of  the  Jordan,  as  attested  by  the  maps  published  by 
the  Society,  based  on  the  Surveys  of  Schumacher 
and  Stiibel,  the  geologist.  Until  recently,  not  much 
stress  has  been  laid  on  digging.  In  1880  Dr.  Guthe 
made  a  series  of  trenches  on  Ophel  and  near  the 
Pool  of  Siloam  at  Jerusalem,  As  I  write,  the  exca- 
vations at  Tell-el-Mutasellim  (Megiddo),  begun  in 
1903  by  Drs.  Benzinger  and  Schumacher,  are  still 
proceeding.  These  have  already  produced  most 
important  results.  Toward  these  excavations  the 
Emperor  William  contributed  liberally.  The  excava- 
tions conducted  for  the  Austrian  Government  by  Dr. 
Sellin  at  the  neighboring  Taanach  were  closed  in 
1904.  Among  the  finds  here  were  several  cuneiform 
tablets.  1 

In  1888-91  investigations  were  conducted  for  the 
Berlin  Museum  by  Dr.  von  Luschan  at  the  mound  of 
Zenjirli,  once  a  city  in  the  land  of  Sham'al.  The 
mound  is  near  the  northern  limit  of  Syria,  being 
situated  just  south  of  the  Issus,  about  forty  miles 
inland.  The  excavations  laid  bare  an  outer  double 
wall,  enclosing  a  nearly  circular  area.  Within  this 
area  was  the  citadel,  itself  enclosed  by  a  double  wall. 
The  sculptures  of  the  gate-ways  were  Hittite  in 
character.  Here  was  found  the  famous  stele  of 
Esarhaddon,  with  an  inscription  of  fifty-nine  lines, 
recording  his  second  Egyptian  campaign.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  the  mound  was  found  a  huge  statue  of 
the  god  Hadad,  with  the  earliest  known  Aramaic  in- 

'  See  Ta'anek,  by  Dr.  Sellin,  describing  tbe  earlier  excavations. 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      285 

scription,  dating  from  about  800  b.c.  Other  Aramaic 
inscriptions  found  in  the  mound  itself  were  of  great 
value  in  illustrating  early  Syrian  civilization,  i 

At  the  Dominican  convent  of  St.  Stephen  at  Jeru- 
salem there  was  established  in  1890  "  The  Practical 
School  of  Biblical  Studies ' '  in  connection  with  a 
Theological  Faculty.  The  first  number  of  the  Revue 
Biblique,  the  organ  of  the  School,  appeared  two 
years  later,  and  has  ever  maintained  a  high  level  of 
critical  learning.  The  exploring  spirit  of  the  Insti- 
tution is  illustrated  by  its  programme,  which  in- 
cludes an  archaeological  promenade  once  a  week,  a 
day's  excursion  once  a  month,  and  three  tours  a 
year,  lasting  from  one  to  three  months,  or  even 
longer.  Thus  a  band  of  ardent  students,  under  scien- 
tific guidance,  roams  over  the  land  from  time  to  time, 
engaged  in  checking  the  reports  of  travellers,  in  ro- 
copying  inscriptions,  in  reinvestigating  sites  which 
still  have  secrets  to  yield — in  a  word,  in  following  up 
every  available  clew.  Cordial  interest  is  taken  in 
the  work  of  others  by  professors  and  pupils  alike. 
It  was  ever  a  pleasure  to  welcome  such  enthusiasts 
to  my  excavation  camps  in  Jerusalem  and  the  Shephe- 
lah.  The  success  of  this  French  Institution  should 
greatly  encourage  the  two  archaeological  schools  re- 
cently founded  at  Jerusalem,  the  American  School 
for  Oriental  Study  and  Research  in  Palestine  (1900), 
and  the  German  Evangelical  Archaeological  Institute 
(1902). 

Tlie  American  Archaeological  Expedition  to  Syria 
conducted   in    1899-1900   by    Dr.    Howard    Crosby 

'Sec  von  LuHciian's  nu-moir,  Ausgnibungcii  in  Scndscliirli,  1893. 


286  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

Butler,  and  financed  by  four  American  gentlemen, 
greatly  supplemented  de  Vogue's  work  in  Northern 
Syria  and  the  Hauran.  Taking  his  itinerary  for  a 
basis,  the  party  made  frequent  diversions  from  this, 
and  were  thus  enabled  to  avail  themselves  of  a  great 
amount  of  fresh  material.  To  give  two  examples: 
Of  the  sixty  churches  delineated,  only  ten  appear  on 
the  plates  of  de  Vogiie;  of  the  four  hundred  Greek 
inscriptions  copied,  the  majority  have  hitherto  been 
unpublished.  The  results  of  the  expedition  are  pub- 
lished by  the  Century  Company  in  five  parts.  No 
more  splendid  work  concerning  Syria  has  ever  been 
issued.  1  In  1904  Dr.  Butler,  with  two  of  his  col- 
leagues, made  a  second  expedition  to  Syria. 

In  the  autumn  of  1898  Emperor  William  of  Ger- 
many visited  Baalbec,  and  was  so  interested  in  the 
site  that  he  later  applied  certain  funds  at  his  dis- 
posal to  a  complete  excavation  of  the  ruins.  This 
work  was  begun  in  1900  under  the  academic  direc- 
tion of  Professor  Puchstein  and  under  the  immediate 
superintendence  of  Messrs.  Schultz  and  Krencker, 
architects.  The  object  was  to  free  the  actual  re- 
mains from  the  debris  which  covered  the  floor  of  the 
Temples  to  a  great  depth.  It  was  found  that  the 
court  of  the  large  Temple  had  been  used  to  protect 
an  Arab  settlement  built  within  its  walls.  On  clear- 
ing away  these  houses  (after  they  had  been  properly 
planned)   many  lost   details  of  the    ancient  shrine 

'  American  Archaeological  Expedition  to  Syria  in  1899-1900. 
Part  I.  Topography  and  Itinerary  (Garrett) ;  Part  II.  Architecture 
and  other  Arts  (Butler);  Part  III.  Greek  and  Latin  Inscriptions 
(Prentice) ;  Part  IV.  Semitic  Inscriptions  (Littmann) ;  Part  V. 
Anthropology  (Huxley). 


THE  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION  FUND      287 

appeared.  Among  these  were  two  richly  sculptured 
pools  or  tanks  and  a  large  altar  of  burnt  sacrifice 
with  ascending  stairway.  A  splendid  flight  of 
steps  leading  up  to  the  small  Temple  was  also 
recovered. 


LECTURE   VIII 

THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE 

In  beginning  this  lecture  it  will  be  well  for  us  to 
explain  its  title.  Here  is  no  definite  prophecy  con- 
cerning what  the  future  explorer  may  bring  to  light. 
Here  is  no  definite  programme  which  he  is  advised  to 
follow.  The  whole  ground  is  by  no  means  covered. 
But  here  is  an  attempt  to  point  out  in  a  general  man- 
ner a  few  of  the  lines  which  exploration  may  be  ex- 
pected to  take,  together  with  the  offer  of  a  few  prac- 
tical hints  based  on  personal  experience.  If  I  appear 
to  over-emphasize  certain  phases,  my  excuse  must  be 
that  these  have  come  within  my  own  range  more 
closely  than  others. 

The  last  lecture  has  failed  of  its  purpose  if  it  has 
not  clearly  indicated  that  the  Palestinian  Explorer  of 
the  future  must  be  a  specialist.  The  surface  of 
Palestine  is  an  open  book  whose  main  lessons  have 
already  been  learned.  With  the  Survey  of  Western 
Palestine  an  accomplished  fact,  and  the  Survey  of 
Eastern  Palestine  a  sure  promise,  exploration  above 
ground  will  soon  become  restricted  to  the  study  of 
particular  questions.  Time  was  when  any  intelligent 
traveller  of  pluck  and  enterprise,  breaking  away  from 
the  beaten  tracks,  might  chance  upon  unexpected  dis- 
coveries on  a  large  scale.  To-day  all  this  is  changed. 
Though  chance  may  bring  him  to  another  Moabite 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE      289 

Stone,  no  longer  may  he  expect  to  come  suddenly 
upon  an  unknown  town.  In  seeking  to  add  to  the 
general  stock  of  knowledge,  he  must  enter  Palestine 
with  an  especial  purpose. 

But  while  surface  exploration  must  in  the  future 
confine  itself  to  the  elucidation  of  problems  already 
stated,  excavation  has  all  the  possibilities  of  an  infant 
art.  The  debris  of  ages  has  only  just  begun  to  reveal 
its  treasures.  Scattered  under  the  soil  are  countless 
' '  documents  ' ' — documents  in  stone,  in  metal,  in 
earthen- ware — documents  inscribed  and  uninscribed, 
but  each  waiting  to  tell  its  tale  of  the  past.  Of  the 
hundreds  of  buried  sites  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  those 
in  which  excavation  has  been  attempted  on  any  large 
scale  do  not  reach  the  number  of  twenty.  The  Ex- 
ploration of  the  Future,  thus,  must  be  largely  con- 
ducted underground.  And  here,  too,  the  specialist 
alone  may  be  trusted.  Mistakes  made  by  one  surface 
explorer  in  reporting  topographical  features  or  in 
measuring  unburied  ruins  have  been  rectified  by  an- 
other, but  the  unscientific  excavator  may  do  damage 
that  can  never  be  remedied.  In  cutting  huge  trial 
trenches  through  a  mound,  consisting  of  ruined  mud- 
brick  dwellings,  he  may  make  the  easy  mistake  of 
failing  to  distinguish  between  fallen  or  decayed  brick 
and  brick  in  situ,  and  thus  destroy  forever  parts  of 
some  important  building  hitherto  preserved  for 
thousands  of  years.  "When  his  scientific  successor, 
excavating  systematically,  comes  to  this  building,  he 
will  have  to  deplore  the  fact  that  no  plan  was  made 
of  the  parts  destroyed. 

But  before  dwelling  on  the  claims  of  excavation, 


290  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

we  may  illustrate  the  nature  of  the  problems  de- 
manding the  attention  of  the  surface  explorer,  by 
giving  a  detailed  presentation  of  one  of  these  which 
will  serve  to  show  how  the  specialist  may  still  throw 
new  light  upon  places  often  visited.  An  entirely 
new  department  of  research  was  opened  up  by  the 
' '  pottery-scale  ' '  of  chronology,  worked  out  by  Petrie 
at  Lachish  and  amplified  by  myself  not  only  at  that 
site,  but  at  four  others  where  I  was  associated  with 
Mr.  Macalister,  who  at  date  of  writing  is  extend- 
ing his  studies  still  further  in  this  line  at  Gezer. 
A  minute  examination  of  tens  of  thousands  of  pot- 
sherds and  of  numerous  whole  vessels,  together  with 
a  record  of  the  archaeological  levels  in  which  they 
were  found ;  a  comparison  of  site  with  site ;  the  proved 
association  of  certain  local  types  with  foreign  imports, 
the  chronological  range  of  which  is  known — Myke- 
nean,  Phoenician,  Cypriote,  and  Greek,  or  with  styles 
copied  from  these — these  investigations  have  resulted 
in  a  general  chronological  classification  of  the  pottery 
of  Palestine  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  Roman 
period.  "We  thus  have  a  key  to  chronology  indis- 
penbsale  at  the  numerous  ruined  sites  whose  remains 
are  otherwise  undateable. 

This  key  has  already  fitted  several  locks.  My 
decision  to  risk  an  expenditure  of  time  and  money 
on  the  excavation  of  Tell-Zakariya  and  Tell-ej-Ju- 
deideh  was  based  upon  an  hour's  examination  of 
the  surface  pottery  upon  each  of  these  mounds,  so 
denuded  of  visible  remains  that  they  formed  fields  for 
growing  crops.  Nor,  as  was  subsequently  proved, 
was  I  deceived  in  either  case  in  the  estimate  thus 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF   THE  FUTURE       291 

formed  of  the  age  of  the  sites.  At  Tell-Sanda- 
hannah  the  surface  examination  was  supplemented 
by  only  two  shafts  to  the  rock  before  we  deter- 
mined to  devote  several  weeks  to  its  investiga- 
tion. Our  theory,  formed  on  the  pottery-data,  that 
the  civilization  of  the  inhabitants  had  been  Jewish  be- 
fore it  was  Greek,  was  fully  confirmed  later  by  other 
dateable  objects  exhumed  by  the  spade.  So  accus- 
tomed we  became  to  the  association  of  certain  types 
at  a  given  archaeological  level,  that  we  could  guess  be- 
forehand what  to  expect.  Thus,  when  a  stratum  re- 
vealed fragments  of  a  certain  sort  of  cooking-pot, 
tiny  black  jars,  and  long-footed  ointment-vessels,  we 
at  once  began  to  clean  all  broken-off  jar-handles, 
knowing  that  our  pains  would  be  rewarded  by  the 
discovery  of  stamps  bearing  precious  Hebrew  inscrip- 
tions. 

The  knowledge  gained  from  these  studies  in  pot- 
tery will  be  useful  in  two  ways.  First,  it  will  serve 
as  a  guide  to  others,  as  it  has  served  to  us,  in  the 
choice  of  sites  to  be  excavated.  Secondly,  it  may  lead 
others,  as  it  has  led  us,  to  reopening  the  discussion 
of  such  Biblical  Identifications  as  have  been  based 
merely  on  the  supposed  survival  of  ancient  town- 
names  and  on  a  general  correspondence  with  indefinite 
topographical  references.  Petrie,  bringing  his  pot- 
tery-key from  Egypt,  was  able  to  disprove,  almost  at 
a  single  glance,  an  identification  formerly  accepted 
by  many  scholars.  The  site  of  Khurbet  'Ajlan  had 
seemed  to  suit  well  enough  what  was  known  of  the 
position  of  Eglon,  and  in  the  modern  name  was  sup- 
posed to  be  heard  an  echo  of  the  ancient.     But  Eglon 


292  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

was  a  member  of  the  Amorite  league  which  included 
the  neighboring  town  of  Lachish.  For  many  cen- 
turies the  histories  of  the  two  places  ran  parallel. 
Their  remains,  then,  should  show  the  same  charac- 
teristics. Those  of  Lachish — Tell-el-Hesy — rise  to 
a  height  of  sixty  feet  and  contain  pottery  from  an 
early  pre-Israelite  period  almost  to  Seleucidan  times. 
At  the  small  site  of  Khurbet  'Ajlan,  Petrie  found  but 
a  very  slight  accumulation  above  the  virgin  soil  strewn 
with  Roman  pottery.  Eglon,  then,  must  be  sought  for 
elsewhere,  perhaps,  as  Petrie  suggests,  three  miles 
south  of  Lachish  at  Tell-en-Nejileh,  where  he  found 
a  large  and  lofty  mound  whose  pottery  indicated  ex- 
treme antiquity  and  long-continued  occupation.  My 
application  of  the  pottery-scale  to  Khurbet  Shuwei- 
keh,  a  site  above  the  Valley  of  Elah,  proved  it  to  be 
late,  thus  confirming  my  suspicions  that  these  slight 
remains  could  not  be  those  of  the  city  of  Shocoh  once 
fortified  by  Rehoboam.  Robinson  did  an  immense 
service  in  proving  that  the  ancient  nomenclature  has 
so  largely  survived  in  the  modern  Arabic  names. 
These  are  of  the  highest  value  as  clews.  But  in  some 
cases  sites  are  known  to  have  shifted.  In  the  modern 
Shuweikeh  we  probably  find  a  survival  of  the  name 
Shocoh,  which  must  be  looked  for  in  the  vicinity, 
possibly,  as  I  have  suggested,  at  Tell-Zakariya,  which 
is  either  Azekah  or  Shocoh.  The  ancient  name  Mare- 
shah  clings  to  a  small  Roman  ruin  under  the  form  of 
Mer'ash,  three-quarters  of  a  mile  away  from  Tell- 
Sandahannah,  which  has  been  proved  by  excavation 
to  be  the  site  of  the  ancient  town  known  to  the  Jews 
as  Mareshah,  to  the  Greeks  us  Marissa.     But  in  at- 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE      293 

tempting  a  precise  identification  based  on  onomastic 
and  topographical  grounds,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in 
mind  that  the  remains  must  be  commensurate  in  ex- 
tent with  what  may  be  gathered  from  the  historical 
references  regarding  the  size  of  the  ancient  town  to 
be  identified;  that  these  remains  must  show  a  depth 
of  accumulation  sufficient  to  account  for  its  historical 
range,  and  that  the  indications  of  age  furnished  by 
the  pottery  must  agree  with  the  notices. 

These  indications  are  far  more  available  to  the  sur- 
face explorer  than  is  usually  supposed.  Every  ruin 
is  covered  with  potsherds,  and  much  may  be  learned 
without  excavation.  The  last  occupation  of  Tell-ej- 
Judeideh  seems  to  have  been  late  Greek  or  early 
Roman,  but  the  surface  gives  signs  of  a  still  earlier 
civilization.  For,  mingling  with  the  prevailing  late 
types  of  pottery  which  strew  the  top,  are  Jewish  jar- 
handles,  many  of  these  having  traces  of  Hebrew 
writing,  which  came  to  the  existing  surface  when 
the  foundations  for  the  last  occupation  were  laid,  and 
which  again  saw  the  light  of  day  when  the  ruined 
Tell  was  ploughed  for  cultivation.  At  Lachish,  as  we 
have  mentioned  before,  the  whole  east  side  of  the 
mound  had  been  so  undermined  by  the  stream  that 
Petrie  found  a  vertical  section  of  strata  practically 
laid  bare.  By  a  little  scraping  he  could  study  the 
pottery  of  a  dozen  centuries — climbing  up  and  down 
the  ages,  as  it  were.  At  Ascalon  the  action  of  the 
waves  has  laid  bare  a  similar  section.  In  quarrying 
away  the  sea-cliff  of  Jebail,  the  modern  inhabitants 
have  exposed  a  section  of  the  superimposed  debris,  full 
of  fragments  of  ' '  comb-faced  ' '  ware  used  by  the  Gib- 


294  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

lites  of  pre-Israelite  times.  This  same  ware  strews 
the  slopes  of  Tell-el-Kady,  the  ancient  Dan.  In  a 
valley  south  of  Tell-Sandahannah  we  gathered  hun- 
dreds of  Rhodian  jar-handles,  stamped  and  inscribed 
in  the  second  or  third  century  B.C.,  which  had  been 
washed  down  by  the  rains  from  the  mound.  At 
many  a  mound  we  can  find  trenches  and  cuttings 
made  by  the  fellahin  for  the  purpose  of  extracting 
stone.  When  these  trenches  pierce  through  the  outer 
crust  of  the  mound,  formed  by  denudation  from  the 
top,  the  original  stratification  of  pottery  can  be  ex- 
amined. By  an  analogy  with  the  results  of  excava- 
tions at  other  sites,  even  from  mounds  which  have 
been  entirely  undisturbed,  much  may  be  inferred  by 
comparing  the  surface  pottery  with  the  amount  of 
accumulation.  A  mound  only  ten  feet  high,  which 
is  characterized  by  Jewish  pottery  on  the  surface, 
probably  represents  the  ruins  of  a  town  both  built 
and  abandoned  in  Jewish  times.  But  Jewish  pottery 
on  the  top  of  a  mound  thirty  feet  high  indicates  almost 
surely  that  the  site  was  occupied  in  early  pre-Israel- 
ite times.  It  may  now  be  gathered  what  we  mean 
by  the  phrase  "a  given  archaeological  level."  The 
term  is  entirely  relative.  Absolute  level  is  no  cri- 
terion of  age.  Thus  a  Jewish  stratum,  for  example, 
may  occur  on  the  rock,  as  was  proved  at  a  small  area 
excavated  at  Tell-Sandahannah ;  in  the  centre  of  the 
mound,  as  at  Tell-es-Safi;  or  near  the  surface,  as  at 
Tell-el-Hesy.  Though  they  occur  at  different  levels, 
relative  to  the  rock,  these  strata  are  archaeologically 
identical.  Great  accumulation,  of  course,  involves  a 
long  series  of  occupations,  hence  the  lowest  stratum 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE      295 

of  a  lofty  mound  must  be  early.  Slight  accumula- 
tion usually  indicates  only  one  period,  but  this  may 
be  of  any  age. 

An  important  quest,  then,  for  the  explorer  of  the 
future  will  be  a  re-examination  of  certain  identifica- 
tions of  ruins  which  were  made  before  the  criteria  of 
which  we  have  been  speaking  were  available.  Let  us 
repeat  that  we  refer  particularly  to  sites  where  other 
chronological  clews  are  lacking.  At  many  a  place  the 
pottery-key  is  rendered  superfluous  by  more  distinc- 
tive indications  of  chronology:  inscriptions,  coins, 
architectural  details,  etc.  In  stating  our  belief  in 
the  dating  power  of  pottery,  we  are  aware  of  its  lim- 
itations. That  our  deductions  are  broadly  general  is 
shown  by  our  classifying  the  pre-Roman  types  in 
Palestine  under  four  categories  only — early  pre- 
Israelite,  late  pre-Israelite,  Jewish,  and  Seleucidan. 
How  indefinite  is  the  line  of  demarcation  between 
class  and  class  has  been  shown  elsewhere  by  our  ex- 
planation of  the  choice  of  nomenclature.  But  the 
power  to  make  a  broad  generalization  is  better  than 
the  inability  to  make  any  generalization  at  all.  To 
state  with  authority  that  one  mound  is  exclusively 
Seleucidan  and  that  another  was  deserted  in  pre- 
Israelite  times  is  an  immense  advance  upon  the  single 
description  serving  to  cover  them  both:  an  ancient 
mound. 

To  the  explorer  who  would  examine  the  ruins  of 
Palestine  with  the  pottery-key  we  would  give  a  few 
hints.  In  the  first  place,  he  must  bear  in  mind  that 
pottery  alone  cannot  be  expected  to  establish  an  iden- 
tification.    Its  mission  does  not  go  beyond  confh'm- 


296  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

ing  or  contradicting  suggestions  made  on  other 
grounds.  And  its  negative  proofs  will  be  stronger 
than  its  positive  proofs.  Khurbet ' Ajlan,  so  declares 
the  pottery,  is  not  as  old  as  Eglon.  Therefore  it 
cannot  be  Eglon.  Tell-es-Safi,  so  declares  the  pot- 
tery, is  as  old  as  Gath.  But  on  that  account  it  is 
not  necessarily  Gath,  though  the  general  argument 
for  the  identification  is  thereby  strengthened. 

Again,  in  his  search  throughout  the  land,  our  ex- 
plorer will  find  numerous  potsherds  of  each  period 
that  might  belong  to  any  other.  On  the  surface  of 
some  sites  he  may  find  no  fragments  determinative 
of  date.  The  same  clay  is  used  from  age  to  age. 
Certain  simple  shapes,  designed  to  meet  elementary 
and  universal  demands,  are  constantly  recurrent. 
You  may  buy  to-day  in  the  Jerusalem  market  lamps 
of  recent  make  which  resemble  the  earliest  Phoenician 
open  types.  The  Roman  and  Byzantine  lamps  known 
to  us  are  closed,  but  I  do  not  dare  affirm  that  the 
open  lamp  ever  fell  into  disuse.  But  each  age  has 
types  differentiated  from  those  of  all  others  by  cer- 
tain characteristics.  ^  Among  these  we  may  mention 
the  type  of  glaze  or  burnishing ;  peculiar  surface  mark- 
ings; above  all,  some  form  of  decoration.  Thanks  to 
the  recent  excavations,  we  now  know  how  vessels  were 
ornamented  in  pre-Israelite  times. 2  Race-individu- 
ality is  also  shown  in  extraordinary  shapes.     The 

'  Some  of  the  pottery  found  in  our  excavations  is  placed  in  the 
Constantinople  Museum.  Tlie  larger  portion  is  arranged  in  a  small 
Museum  in  the  Government  School  at  Jerusalem  near  Herod's  Gate. 
Representative  typos  of  the  different  periods  are  figured  on  fifty  plates 
in  Excavations  in  Palestine,  1898-1900,  by  Bliss  and  Macalister. 

■^  See  Plates  3G-44. 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE      297 

ledge-handle  or  wavy  handle,  stuck  on  to  the  side  of 
a  jar  like  a  shelf,  characterizes  the  earliest  pre-Is- 
raelite  ware  in  Palestine.  ^  The  form  is  found  in 
pre-historic  Egyptian  ware.  Was  it  brought  from 
Syria  to  Egypt,  or  vice  versa  ?  That  question  has  not 
been  satisfactorily  answered,  but  an  early  commercial 
connection  between  these  lands  is  implied  by  the  dis- 
covery of  these  bizarre  types  in  both  places.  Our 
explorer  will  do  well  to  look  out  for  these  unmistak- 
able handles,  which  point  to  so  high  an  antiquity. 
The  pseudamphora,  or  false-necked  jar,  of  the  Myke- 
neans  is  a  freak.  It  might  be  copied  by  contem- 
porary races — doubtless  it  was — it  never  would  be 
invented  a  second  time.  2  It  is  found  in  Syria,  and 
hence  furnishes  an  important  date-clew.  Another 
important  clew  to  age  is  found  in  inscribed  pottery. 
As  we  have  indicated  above,  jar-handles  with  Hebrew 
writing  may  be  gathered  from  the  surface.  Some  of 
these  bear  a  symbol  representing  a  beetle  with  four 
extended  wings;  on  others  the  symbol  takes  the 
form  of  a  winged  disc.  In  both  cases  we  find  a 
dedication  "To  the  King  "  and  the  name  of  a  town, 
probably  the  seat  of  a  Royal  Pottery.  Other  handles 
show  merely  the  name  of  the  maker  or  potter.  All, 
however,  belong  to  a  late  Jewish  period.  ^  The 
Rhodian  jar-handles  with  Greek  inscriptions  date  from 
the  second  and  third  centuries  b.g.^  Tiles  bearing 
the  name  of  the  tenth  Roman  legion  are  turned  up 
at  a  slight  depth  in  the  outskirts  of  Jerusalem.^ 
So  much  for  the  nature  of  the  })r()bleins  awaiting 

■  IMate.s  2:'.  and  2C.  '■'  I'lato  48  ;   No.  17. 

»  IMate  r,(;.  *  Plate  G4. 

'  Excavations  at  JcruBaleiii  (1894-97).     Plato  xxvii. 


298  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

the  surface-explorer.  They  are  distinctly  problems 
for  specialists.  An  equally  good  illustration  would 
have  been  a  detailed  statement  of  the  need  for  a 
comparative  study  of  the  hundreds  of  tombs  which 
the  vandalism  of  the  peasants  has  made  available 
without  further  excavation.  Renan  began  the  study 
of  tombs  long  ago.  Mr.  Macalister  in  the  course  of 
his  excavations  has  made  valuable  contributions  tow- 
ard the  subject.  But  it  is  very  far  from  being 
exhausted.  Leaving,  then,  the  question  of  surface 
exploration,  we  come  to  the  matter  of  excavation, 
which  now  looms  so  large  before  the  would-be  dis- 
coverer. We  have,  early  in  the  lecture,  disclaimed 
the  idea  of  prophecy.  This  has  danger  even  in  its 
negative  form.  Twenty-five  years  ago  prophecy 
would  have  refused  to  state  that  notable  works  of 
Art  might  be  expected  from  Syrian  soil.  Twenty- 
five  years  ago  prophecy  would  have  denied  the  hope 
that  cuneiform  tablets  would  be  unearthed  in  Pales- 
tine. And  yet  the  soil  of  Sidon  has  yielded  the 
exquisitely  sculptured  Sarcophagi,  now  in  the  Im- 
perial Museum  at  Constantinople,  and  cuneiform 
tablets  have  been  found  at  Lachish,  Taanach,  and 
Gezer.  Bearing  in  mind  the  extraordinary  historical 
vicissitudes  to  which  Syria  and  Palestine  have  been 
subjected — lands  once  the  highway  for  the  armies 
of  Assyria  and  Egypt;  lands  which  again  and  again 
have  passed  with  violent  shock  from  one  foreign 
master  to  another;  lands  that  have  been  harried  and 
ravaged  and  plundered  as  few  other  lands  have  been — 
bearing  in  mind  the  destructive  clinuitic  influences 
so  strongly  in  contrast  with  the  conditions  of  the 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE      299 

Nile  Valley,  where,  for  century  after  century,  desert 
air  and  desert  sand  have  preserved  pigments  in  all 
their  pristine  brilliancy ;  bearing  in  mind  the  poverty 
of  Syria  and  Palestine  in  pre-Roman  days,  as  com- 
pared with  Egypt  on  the  one  hand  and  Mesopotamia 
on  the  other;  bearing  in  mind  the  actual  results  of 
excavations  thus  far — results  interesting  indeed  and 
full  of  value,  but,  with  very  few  exceptions,  intrin- 
sically poor  in  comparison  with  those  from  other 
lands;  bearing  in  mind  all  these  conditions,  were  I 
to  prophesy,  I  would  prophesy  a  continuation  in  the 
future  of  the  experiences  of  the  past — a  gradual 
aggregation  of  small  things  from  which  large  infer- 
ences may  be  drawn,  rather  than  some  sudden  and 
startling  revelation  on  a  grand  scale.  But  bearing 
in  mind  the  exceptional  surprises  of  the  past,  I  pre- 
fer, in  this  matter  of  excavation,  not  to  prophesy  at 
all,  but,  as  I  have  said  before,  to  confine  myself  to 
the  presentation  of  a  few  practical  conditions  which 
confront  the  excavator.  And  as,  apart  from  such 
tombs  as  have  escaped  robbery  in  one  age  or  another, 
the  most  valuable  discoveries  may  be  expected  in  the 
mounds,  I  shall  speak  with  some  minuteness  of  mound- 
structure. 

Scattered  over  the  surface  of  Syria  and  Palestine 
are  numerous  mounds  or  tells.  Some  counterfeit  in 
appearance  a  natural  hill;  others,  even  to  the  ordinary 
observer,  show  their  artificial  nature;  in  the  case  of 
still  others  it  is  hard  for  the  trained  eye  to  deter- 
mine the  line  between  a  real  hill,  once  chosen  as  tlie 
site  of  a  town,  and  the  surmounting  debris,  con- 
sequent on  its  destruction. 


300  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

The  secret  of  a  mound  is  very  simple.  From  age 
to  age  the  inhabitants  of  a  given  site  have  been 
ordinarily  content  to  build  on  the  ruins  of  their  an- 
cestors, without  a  rock  foundation.  To  produce  the 
height  of  a  tell,  men  of  successive  ages  have  worked 
in  unconscious  bond.  To  produce  the  final  sym- 
metry, nature  has  lent  its  rains  and  winds.  Con- 
struction and  destruction  have  gone  hand  in  hand. 
Love  of  the  ancestral  site ;  fire,  war,  and  pillage ;  the 
desire  for  better  buildings;  natural  decay  and  denu- 
dation— thus  have  contrary  forces  worked  toward 
one  final  result :  the  formation  of  a  mound  that  may 
be  sown  and  reaped.  A  mound,  thus,  consists  of  a 
series  of  strata,  each  stratum  representing  an  his- 
torical period.  Sometimes  the  stratification  remains 
clear  and  distinct;  in  other  cases  it  has  been  dis- 
turbed. The  most  perfectly  stratified  mounds  are 
those  where  the  building  material  demands  the  mini- 
mum of  disturbance  of  the  underlying  occupation,  or, 
in  other  words,  of  the  parts  of  the  mound  already 
formed  when  the  foundations  of  the  new  occupation 
are  laid.  Such  a  material  is  sun-dried  brick.  Let 
us  briefly  follow  through  the  ages  the  fortunes  of  a 
town  built  of  this  material. 

The  first  inhabitants,  having  chosen  a  site,  rear 
on  the  rock  or  the  virgin  soil  their  constructions  of 
bricks  formed  of  clay  dried  in  the  sun — usually  made 
with  straw.  When  the  first  occupation  falls  into 
ruins — through  war,  age,  or  temporary  abandon- 
ment— the  conditions  are  as  follows :  The  lower  por- 
tions of  the  walls  remain  in  situ,  but  are  surrounded 
and  buried  by  the  fallen  upper  portions,  that  is,  by 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE      301 

precisely  the  same  material  as  that  of  which  they 
are  made,  and,  what  is  more  important,  by  precisely 
the  same  material  as  is  to  be  used  in  the  next 
construction.  The  rough  platform  thus  formed 
furnishes  a  ready-made  foundation.  The  second 
town  rises  on  the  ruins  of  the  first  with  no  neces- 
sary interference  with  its  ground-plan.  Moreover, 
the  objects  left  in  the  ruins  of  the  first  town — ves- 
sels, weapons,  tablets — are  completely  buried  by  the 
buildings  of  the  second  town,  and  thus  remain  in- 
tact forever,  or  at  least  till  the  excavator  of  future 
ages  may  discover  them.  This  process  may  go 
on  for  centuries,  until  we  have  a  perpendicular 
series  of  towns,  as  at  Lachish,  where,  as  already 
stated,  the  excavator  was  able  to  furnish  partial 
plans  of  eight  distinct  occupations,  covering  a  period 
of  some  twelve  or  fifteen  centuries — plans  where  the 
walls  in  the  various  occupations  are  along  different 
lines,  are  sharply  distinguished  in  each  case  from 
those  below,  and  do  not  interfere  with  these,  i 

In  a  mound  where  the  accumulation,  through  the 
ages,  is  due  to  the  successive  erection  and  ruin  of 
stone  dwellings,  the  anatomical  conditions  are  some- 
what different.  In  the  first  place,  given  an  equal 
lapse  of  time,  the  accumulation  is  by  no  means  as 
great  as  in  the  case  of  a  mud-brick  mound.  This  is 
obviously  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  former  case, 
from  age  to  age,  the  same  material  is  easily  available 

•  See  A  Mound  of  Many  Cities.  In  each  of  the  eight  plans 
blank  places  apjx-ar  wlicro  tlic  htiildinj^s  had  been  oiitiroly  ruined, 
but  the  remaining  walls  abundantly  prove  and  illustrate  the  slrati- 
lication. 


302  PALEf^TINE  EXPLORATION 

for  re-use.  On  the  other  hand,  in  a  town  built  of 
mud-brick,  when  a  wall  falls,  already  partly  dis- 
integrated, it  is  left  on  the  spot  for  further  dis- 
integration, and  helps  to  make  the  mound  grow. 
When  a  new  town  is  built,  fresh  material  is  usually, 
though  not  always,  brought  from  the  outside.  ^ 
Fallen  stones,  however,  may  readily  be  reshaped 
and  re-used  in  a  later  age.  Forming  part  of  the 
new  construction,  they  minimize  the  amount  of  new 
material  to  be  imported.  The  excavations  at  Tell- 
es-Safi  (presumably  Gath)  prove  that  the  historical 
range  of  the  town  was  even  longer  than  that  at 
Tell-el-Hesy  (Lachish) ,  but  the  latter  site  has  a  maxi- 
mum of  sixty  feet  of  accumulation  over  against  only 
thirty  at  the  former.  At  Tell-es-Safi  mud-brick  is 
the  exception,  the  main  building  material  having 
always  been  stone. 

In  the  second  place,  at  such  a  mound  the  strati- 
fication is  less  distinct.  Old  lines  of  walling  may 
be  re-used  without  alteration.  The  ground-plan 
of  one  building  is  often  interpenetrated  with  the 
foundations  of  a  later  construction.  Thus  recon- 
struction of  a  given  stratum  must  be  based  upon  a 
series  of  most  careful  deductions,  and  even  then 
must  be  regarded  as  tentative.  An  example  of  this 
is  found  in  the  proposed  reconstruction  of  the  rude 

^  Dr.  Tlilprecht  notes  instances  of  re-use  of  clay  at  Nippur  : 
"We  know  positively  that  earlier  building  remains  were  frequently 
razed  to  the  ground  l)y  later  generations,  often  enough  for  no  other 
reason  than  to  obtain  building  material,  worked  clay,  as  well  as 
burnt  bricks,  for  their  own  coiistraetions,  in  tlie  easiest  and  t^lieapest 
manner  possible."  Exj)loratiuu  in  Bible  Lauds  in  tlie  Nineteenth 
Century,  pp.  541-2. 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE       303 

temple  discovered  at  a  depth  of  twenty  feet  at  Tell- 
es-Safi.^  Two  plans  appear  side  by  side:  one  shows 
a  confused  mass  of  wallings;  the  other,  one  fairly 
symmetrical  construction  —  the  second  plan  being 
made  simply  by  eliminating  from  the  first  such  walls 
as  various  considerations  suggested,  if  not  proved  to 
be  later  than  the  original  temple.  Again,  important 
stone  buildings,  of  whatever  age,  have  to  be  founded 
upon  the  rock.  Thus  at  Tell-Zakariya  the  stratifi- 
cation was  disturbed,  though  not  destroyed,  by  a 
large  fortress  (built  probably  several  centuries  after 
the  first  settlers)  whose  massive  walls,  requiring  a 
rock  foundation,  were  sunk  down  through  the  re- 
mains of  earlier  times. 2 

Before  leaving  the  question  of  mound-structure  I 
may  touch  upon  a  thoughtless  but  popular  miscon- 
ception. It  is  often  supposed  that  the  winds  play 
an  important  part  in  covering  up  ruins.  A  certain 
amount  of  shifting  of  the  loose  earth  on  the  surface 
of  any  given  site  undoubtedly  occurs,  but  that  the 
amount  of  soil  brought  by  the  winds  from  a  distance 
is  inappreciable  is  proved  at  Tell-ej-Judeideh.     Here 

'See  Excavations  in  Palestine,  1807-1900;  Bliss  and  Macalistcr. 

*  Stratifieation  over  any  large  area  is  practically  non-existent  in 
tlie  debris  of  ancient  Jerusalem — which  may  be  called  a  huge  ir- 
regular mound,  or  a  series  of  mounds — where  the  accumulation  has 
constantly  been  disturbed  by  the  erection,  in  every  period,  of  im- 
portant buildings  requiring  rock  foundations.  Note  our  piirase  over 
any  large  area.  In  following  the  line  of  the  south  wall  in  our 
excavations,  we  were  able  to  distinguish  between  various  ])eriods. 
At  particular  points,  away  from  the  wall,  we  could  work  out  the 
chronological  relations  of  superimposed  and  interpenetrating  re- 
mains. Rut  the  reader  must  banish  the  idea  that  the  data  exist  for 
tlic  detailed  reconstruc^tion  of  any  large  section  of  ancient  Jerusalem 
at  any  given  period. 


304  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

we  have  a  long  summit,  only  one-third  of  which  was 
occupied.  Along  the  unoccupied  portion  the  rock 
crops  up  everywhere,  often  like  a  flat  platform, 
clean  and  smooth.  Had  the  accumulation  on  the 
occupied  area  been  in  any  degree  due  to  the  winds, 
these  would  have  acted  in  the  same  way  on  the  other 
portions  of  the  hill.  The  surfaces  of  mounds,  de- 
serted for  centuries  and  never  disturbed  by  the 
plough,  are  strewn  with  potsherds:  had  the  winds 
played  any  part  in  the  growth  of  a  mound  these 
would  have  been  covered  up  long  ago. 

The  above  remarks  have  indicated,  I  hope,  that 
the  price  of  success  in  excavating  a  mound  must  be 
eternal  vigilance.  Every  phenomenon  should  be  ac- 
counted for.  The  buildings  in  each  stratum  should 
be  isolated  from  the  surrounding  dehris,  and  then 
exactly  plotted  and  planned  before  they  are  removed, 
in  order  to  make  possible  the  examination  of  the 
underlying  stratum.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  extract 
all  the  treasures  the  mound  contains:  the  level  and 
position  of  every  object,  however  apparently  un- 
important, should  be  noted.  Every  basket  of  earth 
should  be  examined,  lest  a  precious  scarab  or  in- 
scribed bead  be  thrown  away.  Every  broken-off 
jar-handle  should  be  scrutinized  in  the  hope  that  it 
contain  some  stamp  or  inscription.  Every  tap  of 
the  pick  should  be  directed  with  caution,  lest  some 
vase,  preserved  intact  for  ages,  should  be  broken  at 
the  moment  of  discovery.  In  a  word,  the  excavator 
should  regard  no  phase  of  the  work  as  too  trivial  for 
his  personal  attention. 

As  excavation  in  the  Turkish  Empire  is  theoreti- 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE       305 

cally  impossible  without  a  permit,  it  will  be  well  to 
say  a  few  words  here  concerning  the  Turkish  Law 
regarding  antiquities.  Considerable  ignorance  pre- 
vails in  regard  to  the  attitude  of  the  Porte  toward 
archaeology.  This  is  often  assumed  to  be  one  of 
hostility.  The  failure  of  a  given  explorer  to  obtain 
a  permit  to  dig  in  some  distant  portion  of  the  Em- 
pire is  set  down  to  a  deep-rooted  prejudice  of  the 
Turk,  not  only  against  science  but  against  foreigners. 
Great  injustice  is  done  to  the  Turk  in  this  matter. 
Foreigners  are  too  apt  to  expect  to  act  with  carte  blanche 
in  Turkish  territory  and  then  to  blame  the  authorities 
if  anything  goes  wrong.  Naturally  the  Porte  ex- 
ercises wariness  in  permitting  a  stranger  of  unknown 
antecedents  to  excavate  in  a  disturbed  district  pop- 
ulated by  suspicious  tribes.  The  Occidental  excava- 
tor may  be  a  man  of  mere  scholastic  training,  utterly 
unpractical,  devoid  of  tact  in  dealing  with  native 
workmen  of  an  alien  religion,  unused  to  desert  life. 
Such  a  man  may  easily  get  into  serious  trouble,  and, 
unable  to  go  on  with  his  work,  will  probably  complain 
to  his  Government.  And  his  Government  will  prob- 
ably try  to  hold  the  Porte  responsible.  When  the 
next  man  proposes  to  excavate  in  a  similar  district 
the  Porte  may  be  conceived,  in  diplomatic  language, 
to  reply  "No."  Additions  to  the  Imperial  Museum 
come  too  dear  when  purchased  at  the  cost  of  possible 
international  friction.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
excavator  exercises  tact,  patience,  and,  above  all, 
honesty,  he  may  complete  his  campaign  successfully, 
enrich  the  Constantinople  Museum  with  antiquities, 
and,  in  consequence,  become  a  -persona  grata  to  the 


306  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

Porte.     Hereafter  he  will  find  no  difficulty  in  secur- 
ing other  permits. 

The  Turkish  Law  regarding  antiquities  is  a  docu- 
ment full  of  theoretic  wisdom.  The  preservation  of 
ancient  remains,  both  above  and  below  ground,  is 
possible  only  upon  the  theory  that  these  are  in- 
herently the  exclusive  property  of  the  Government. 
Did  this  theory  hold  in  England,  the  recent  hue  and 
cry  as  to  the  threatened  destruction  of  Stonehenge 
would  have  been  impossible.  As  a  natural  corollary 
to  the  proposition,  the  Turks  hold  that  a  man  has  no 
right  to  search  for  antiquities  in  his  own  land  with- 
out a  permit.  This  is  in  the  direct  interests  of 
science.  Left  to  himself,  the  discoverer  of  antiquities 
may  destroy  these  or  dispose  of  them  in  such  a  way 
that  the  knowledge  of  their  provenance,  which  often 
greatly  enhances  their  value,  is  lost.  In  antiquities 
accidentally  discovered,  the  land-owner  has  a  certain 
share,  regulated  by  law.  The  objects  he  discovers 
by  permission  belong  exclusively  to  the  Government. 
A  permit  to  excavate  in  the  land  of  another  or  others 
carries  with  it  no  authority  over  such  territory. 
Thus  the  rights  of  individuals  are  strictly  guarded. 
Terms  must  be  made  by  the  excavator  himself.  In 
cases  of  dispute  the  Government  may  sometimes  act 
as  arbitrator,  though  this  point  is  not  covered  by 
the  law  itself.  The  excavator  must,  bind  himself 
not  to  endanger  sacred  or  military  buildings.  I 
have  excavated  in  the  lands  of  scores  of  people.  In 
case  of  damage  to  crops  I  have  always  given  compen- 
sation ;  sometimes  I  have  paid  ' '  ground-rent. ' '  Dif- 
ficulties in  working  about  the  Pool  of  Siloam  vanished 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE      307 

when  I  agreed  to  build  a  new  and  better  stairway 
down  to  the  Pool,  using  the  great  stones  I  had  exca- 
vated in  the  vicinity.  In  Jerusalem  land-owners 
often  begged  me  to  excavate  in  their  properties, 
encouraged  by  the  discovery  of  ancient  cisterns,  or 
by  the  exhuming  of  valuable  building  materials  in 
the  land  of  their  neighbors.  In  outlying  districts, 
owing  to  the  Turkish  flag  flying  over  the  tent  of 
the  Imperial  Commissioner  (always  accompanying 
the  excavator,  in  order  to  take  over  the  finds  on  the 
part  of  the  Museum),  our  right  to  dig  was  unques- 
tioned. "When  digging  in  arable  land,  we  either 
restored  the  ground  to  its  original  condition,  or  paid 
the  owner  to  restore  it  himself.  An  exception  was 
made  at  Tell-el-Hesy,  where  I  cut  down  one-third  of 
the  mound,  but  the  area  of  cultivable  soil  was  not 
diminished,  though  now  appearing  at  two  different 
levels. 

Admirable  as  is  the  Turkish  Law  on  excavation 
in  theory,  its  strict  enforcement  is  rendered  impossi- 
ble by  various  conditions.  It  seems  to  assume  that 
the  agents  of  the  Museum  are  ubiquitous,  or,  rather, 
that  the  general  officials  of  the  Government  can  fol- 
low up  and  punish  all  cases  of  illicit  digging.  In  a 
country  so  abounding  in  ancient  remains  as  Turkey, 
a  proper  carrying  out  of  the  law  would  require  a 
force  of  thousands  of  archaeological  police.  The  law 
deals  not  only  with  excavated  objects  but  with  the 
preservation  of  ruins  above-ground.  Yet  in  remote 
parts  of  the  Empire  noble  monuments  are  destroyed 
for  the  pur])0se  of  obtaining  building  material  before 
the  authorities  can  check  the  vandalism.     Thus  the 


308  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

splendid  remains  of  'Amman  (Philadelphia)  were  al- 
ready partly  despoiled  by  the  Circassian  Colony  be- 
fore the  Government  stepped  in.  The  search  by  the 
peasants  for  glass  and  other  objects  in  ancient  cem- 
eteries abounding  in  the  district  of  which  Beit  Jibrin 
(Eleutheropolis)  is  the  centre,  begun  many  years 
ago,  checked  temporarily  when  we  were  working  on 
the  spot,  was  resumed  after  we  left.  In  Galilee 
this  grave-robbing  has  spread  far  and  wide.  The 
law,  in  fact,  defeats  its  own  purpose  in  one  respect. 
Not  only  does  the  Museum  lose  the  objects  discovered, 
but  Science  cannot  be  sure  where  these  came  from. 
Antiquities  may  be  bought  in  large  quantities,  but 
fear  of  exposure  prevents  the  history  of  their  dis- 
covery becoming  known.  Petty  and  illicit  excava- 
tion is  easy,  while  scientific  excavation  on  a  large 
scale  is  hampered  by  the  tedious  but  necessary  proc- 
ess of  obtaining  a  permit.  Application  to  the  local 
Consul,  transmission  of  the  request  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Instruction  through  the  Embassy, 
agreement  between  this  department  and  the  Museum, 
correspondence  with  the  local  authorities  for  assurance 
that  no  local  difficulties  exist,  the  final  authorization 
of  the  Sultan,  the  appointing  of  a  Commissioner — at 
best  these  processes  take  almost  a  year,  and  it  is  not 
reasonably  to  be  expected,  at  least  by  a  novice,  that 
they  should  take  less.  The  would-be  excavator, 
burning  to  ply  the  spade,  is  apt  to  feel  that  Con- 
sulates, Embassies,  and  the  Sublime  Porte  exist 
chiefly  to  further  his  scientific  designs.  Personally 
I  have  little  complaint  against  these  various  agencies 
in  the  expedition  of  tho  business  with  which  I  was 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTUllE       309 

intrusted.  In  Egypt  the  obtaining  of  a  permit  is  a 
much  shorter  affair.  But  then  Egypt  differs  from 
Turkey  both  geographically  and  administratively. 
The  Department  of  Antiquities  is  thoroughly  organ- 
ized; communication  is  easy;  the  population  is  uni- 
fied; sites  requiring  excavations  are,  as  a  rule,  un- 
hampered by  modern  constructions. 

Once  having  obtained  his  permit,  the  excavator 
who  would  avoid  trouble  will  find  his  chief  hope  lying 
in  strict  conformity  to  Turkish  Law.  In  Egypt  the 
discoverer  must  turn  over  to  the  Museum  at  Cairo 
one-third  of  his  finds,  including  all  unique  specimens ; 
must  promise  to  give  one-third  to  foreign  museums ; 
and  may  keep  the  remaining  third  himself.  This 
seems  certainly  to  be  more  reasonable  than  the  Otto- 
man law,  which  requires  that  all  objects,  including 
dupKcates,  be  delivered  to  the  Imperial  Commissioner 
for  the  Museum.  Temptations  to  evade  the  law 
will  present  themselves,  but  these  should  be  stead- 
fastly resisted.  Hamdy  Bey,  Director-General  of  the 
Museum,  has  proved  himself  very  generous  in  grant- 
ing duplicates  to  those  discoverers  whom  he  has 
found  worthy  of  his  confidence.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  excavator  who  is  known  successfully  to  have 
smuggled  his  finds  out  of  the  country  will  find  it  im- 
possible to  get  another  permit. 

The  explorer  who  would  keep  the  Turkish  Law  re- 
garding the  antiquities  he  discovers  may  comfort 
himself  with  the  knowledge  that  those  will  be  well 
looked  after  if  they  reach  Constantinople.  Under 
the  learned  and  artistic  direction  of  Hamdy  Bey  and 
his  brotli(;r  and  colleague,  Khalil  Bey,  the  Imperial 


310  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

Museum  furnishes  a  generous  and  beautiful  housing 
for  antiquities.  The  explorer  of  whatever  nationality 
may  well  be  proud  to  see  his  finds  placed  here.  Long 
may  the  Museum  continue  under  such  a  regime  ! 

Such,  then,  are  some  of  the  problems  awaiting  solu- 
tion by  the  explorer  of  the  land  itself,  above  and  be- 
low ground,  as  well  as  some  of  the  conditions  under 
which  he  must  work.  But  exploration  in  the  broad 
sense,  as  conceived  by  the  founders  of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund,  includes  an  examination  of  the  re- 
ligious rites,  of  the  social  manners  and  customs  of 
the  modern  inhabitants  of  the  land.  A  scientific  in- 
vestigation in  these  fields  demands  immediate  atten- 
tion. If  put  off  much  longer  it  will  be  too  late.  The 
tide  of  Western  civilization  is  passing  over  Syria  and 
Palestine,  gradually  obliterating  much  that  illustrates 
the  past.  This  branch  of  inquiry  has  not  been  as 
thoroughly  and  systematically  pursued  as  others  have 
been,  though  its  importance  has  been  long  recog- 
nized. 1  Even  Thomson's  ' '  Land  and  the  Book, ' '  rich 
as  it  is  in  the  detailing  of  manners  and  customs,  has  left 
much  to  be  done.  Some  years  ago  the  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Fund  issued  a  series  of  questions  regarding 
the  various  races  and  sects  of  the  land,  drawn  up  by 
specialists  in  folk-lore,  and  covering  a  variety  of  sub- 
jects— birth,  marriage,  death,  religion,  superstitions, 
government,  land-tenure,  etc.  These  were  widely 
scattered,  but  thus  far  the  returns  have  been  meagre. 
Perhaps  the  best  results  are  those  embodied  in  the 
papers  of  Mr.  Baldensperger,  published  from  time  to 
time  in  the  Qiiartcirly  Statements  of  the  Fund.     As 

'  Rauwolf  treated  the  subject  carefully  in  1575. 


THE  EXPLORATION  OP  THE  FUTURE       311 

Bee-Keeper  in  the  hills  and  valleys  of  Judea,  he 
mingled  freely  with  the  peasants,  living  their  daily 
life,  enjoying  their  confidence.  What  he  has  done 
for  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem  should  be  accomplished 
at  a  hundred  other  points.  But  it  is  diificult  to  find 
the  people  to  do  it.  Strangers  to  the  land,  however 
well  equipped  by  previous  knowledge,  are  hampered 
by  lack  of  time,  by  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the 
language,  by  the  consequent  uncertainties  arising 
from  the  necessity  for  an  interpreter,  too  eager  to 
please  his  employer.  ^  Resident  foreigners  are  too 
busy.  There  are  missionaries  of  many  nationalities 
scattered  through  the  land,  who  come  in  daily  con- 
tact with  the  most  interesting  facts,  but  whose  stren- 
uous life  prevents  the  daily  and  exact  record  which 
alone  would  give  scientific  value  to  all  their  observa- 
tions. The  same  is  true  of  other  residents :  doctors, 
merchants,  consuls.  The  ordinary  native  is  to  be 
trusted  only  as  far  as  his  own  particular  sect  or  dis- 
trict is  concerned,  and  even  then  is  to  be  taken  cum 
grano  salis.  The  ideal  investigator  in  these  depart- 
ments of  knowledge  would  be  a  native  graduate  of 
the  Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beyrout,  trained  to 
observe  acutely,  to  weigh  evidence  scientifically,  to 
record  his  observations  in  a  form  at  once  systematic 
and  dispassionate.     To  such  a  man  I  would  recom- 

'  Intoro8ting  investigations  in  these  lines,  however,  were  recently 
pursued  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  S.  I.  Curtiss  of  McCormick  Theologi- 
cal Seminary.  Summer  after  summer  he  returned  to  Syria,  always 
choosing  new  routes,  availing  himself  of  the  experience  of  the  mis- 
sionaries, often  joining  them  on  their  tours.  In  1!I02  he  published 
rriinitive  Semitic  Keligion  To  day,  in  which  he  attempted  to  prove 
the  survival  of  early  sacrificial  ideas. 


312  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

mend  this  quest,  urging  him  to  seek  to  find  out  the 
truth  regarding  his  country  rather  than  to  glorify  it, 
to  treat  the  life  of  those  of  opposing  faith  with  a 
candor  he  shows  to  his  own,  and,  above  all,  to  verify 
his  alleged  facts. 

The  urgency  of  this  quest  is  due  to  two  causes. 
The  life  of  the  country  is  being  rapidly  altered,  not 
only  by  the  bringing  in  of  foreign  influences  by  Euro- 
peans and  by  Americans,  but  also  by  the  return  of 
natives  who  have  sojourned  in  other  countries.  Turn 
we  to  the  first  cause.  This  works  both  through  in- 
dustrial forces  and  through  education.  Foreign 
machinery  is  being  imported  which  will  drive  out  the 
time-honored  hand  labor.  Our  Consul  at  Beyrout 
was  recently  present  at  the  inauguration  of  an  Amer- 
ican reaper.  Other  agricultural  implements  will 
follow.  The  natural  products  will  be  greatly  in- 
creased. But  the  parable  of  the  Sower  will  no  longer 
be  enacted  on  every  plain,  on  every  hill-side.  Sev- 
eral American  water  wind-mills  have  been  erected  in 
Beyrout  and  the  Lebanon.  It  is  conceivable  that  in 
the  near  future  these  may  replace  the  picturesque 
water-wheel.  The  chief  interest  of  Hamath,  noted 
by  travellers  from  early  times,  will  be  destroyed.  No 
longer  will  be  heard  the  music  of  Naiiras,  each,  as  it 
turns  on  its  axle,  sending  out  a  different  note — in 
some  cases  a  series  of  notes,  a  veritable  motif, — no 
longer  will  bucket  after  bucket,  on  the  circumference 
of  these  vast  wheels,  sometimes  eighty  feet  in  diam- 
eter, dip  into  the  stream,  rise  again  slowly,  cast  out 
its  water,  descend  and  rise  again  in  stately  revolu- 
tion.    Railway  systems  are  rapidly  increasing  with 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE        313 

their  tendencies  to  unify  the  land  on  the  basis  of 
modern  civilization.  In  the  winter  of  1901-1902  the 
letters  of  a  resident  missionary  in  Ras  Baalbec,  a 
day's  journey  north  of  Baalbec,  two  days'  journey 
from  Beyrout,  were  full  of  descriptions  of  local  cus- 
toms, some  of  which  were  unknown  to  me.  Since 
these  letters  were  written,  the  shrieking  engine  pulls 
up  at  Ras  Baalbec  on  its  way  from  Hamath,  and  the 
train  takes  on  passengers  to  Beyrout  in  a  few  hours. 
How  much  longer  will  Ras  Baalbec,  no  longer  isolated, 
continue  to  mirror  the  past,  continue  to  be  differ- 
entiated from  other  parts  of  Syria?  The  modern 
traveller,  if  so  disposed,  may  find  a  billiard-table  at 
Nazareth;  he  may  dine  at  table  d'hote  at  Jericho;  he 
may  play  roulette  to  the  sound  of  an  Italian  band  in 
a  hotel  on  the  heights  of  Lebanon ;  he  may  converse 
in  French  with  the  Sheikh  of  Palmyra.  But  the  bil- 
liard-table, the  Italian  band,  the  broken  French  of 
Sheikh  Mohammed,  typify  a  state  of  transition  which 
the  student  of  folk-lore  must  regard  with  alarm. 

The  transforming  power  of  education  must  also  be 
counted  as  an  agent  working  against  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  old  life.  The  influence  of  the  foreign 
schools  is  far-reaching.  The  French  led  the  way. 
They  were  followed  by  Americans,  English,  Italians, 
Germans,  and  more  recently  by  Russians.  Institu- 
tions also  have  been  established  by  the  local  churches 
on  foreign  models.  Beyrout  boasts  of  four  colleges. 
Two  of  these,  the  Syrian  Protestant  College  (Amer- 
ican) and  the  Jesuit  University  of  St.  Joseph  (French), 
have  medical  departments.  Tlie  Maronite  College  of 
Bishop  Dibs  and  tlio  Patriarrhul  College  of  the  Greek 


314  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

Catholics  are  under  native  control.  The  American 
College,  with  over  seven  hundred  and  fifty  students, 
has  its  Commencement,  its  Field-Day,  with  all  the 
usual  athletic  events,  its  Literary  Societies,  its  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  and  its  College  Yell.  Among  its  Syrian  stu- 
dents, who  still  form  the  majority,  though  the  numbers 
include  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Armenians,  have  been 
enrolled  scions  of  princely  Druse  families  and  de- 
scendants of  Khaled,  the  Sword  of  God,  who  con- 
quered Syria  for  Mohammed.  The  distinction  between 
peasant  and  noble  is  forgotten  in  a  game  of  foot-ball. 
Native  costumes,  except  in  neglige,  have  yielded  al- 
most without  exception  to  European  dress.  When 
its  graduates  desire  to  marry,  their  wives  are  chosen 
from  the  girls  also  educated  in  foreign  institutions. 
But  Beyrout  is  only  the  focus  of  the  educational 
movement  in  Syria.  It  has  spread  all  through  Syria 
to  Damascus,  to  the  villages  of  the  Lebanon,  to  Hums, 
to  Hamath,  to  other  cities  of  the  coast.  Palestine, 
too,  has  its  numerous  foreign  schools,  not  only  in 
Jerusalem,  but  scattered  far  and  wide,  and  these,  as 
in  Syria,  have  stimulated  education  under  local  Turk- 
ish administration.  The  Government  School  for 
Moslem  girls  in  Jerusalem  was  put  under  the  charge 
of  an  American  lady.  While  excavating  near  the 
small  Moslem  village  of  Zakariya,  I  was  pleased  to 
yield  up  one  of  my  juvenile  workmen  to  the  turbaned 
pedagogue  on  the  ground  that  he  had  been  the  star 
of  the  local  school:  the  influence  of  the  Director  of 
Public  Instruction  at  Jerusalem  was  felt  twenty 
miles  away.  Thus  hundreds  of  young  people  of  both 
sexes  return  every  year  from  school  to  their  homes 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE        315 

bringing  with  them  new  ideas  which  must  lead  to 
new  habits  and  customs. 

The  second  cause  of  change  in  the  life  of  the  land 
is  found  in  the  new  ideas  introduced  by  returned 
emigrants.  In  this  temporary  emigration  the  Leb- 
anon led  the  way.  Thousands  of  Lebanese  are  to 
be  found  in  the  United  States,  in  South  America,  in 
Australia,  in  South  Africa.  The  original  impulse 
was  simply  one  of  trade.  Genuine  emigration  was 
not  contemplated:  each  voyager  into  the  unknown 
hoped  to  return  with  a  fortune.  Many  did  thus 
return.  By  travelling  from  town  to  town  with  a 
pack  on  the  back,  peddling  Oriental  curiosities  or 
cheap  French  wares,  living  cheap  and  selling  dear, 
the  formerly  poorer  inhabitants  of  the  villages  in 
the  Cedar  district  were  able  often  on  their  return  to 
rival  their  once  richer  neighbors  in  the  grandeur  of 
their  houses.  Then  "going  to  America"  became 
the  craze.  Notwithstanding  the  difficulties  placed 
in  the  way  by  the  Government  officials,  alarmed  lest 
agriculture  in  the  mountains  should  suffer,  every 
steamer  to  Marseilles  was  packed  with  men,  women, 
and  children.  Gradually  the  impulse  spread  to  Da- 
mascus, to  Jerusalem,  and  to  the  cities  of  the  coast. 
And  not  even  now  is  it  on  the  decrease.  But  there 
are  signs  that  the  character  of  the  movement  is  alter- 
ing: peddling  has  become  overdone;  large  commer- 
cial houses  have  been  established;  many  individuals 
are  employed  in  factories  or  are  pursuing  some  set- 
tled trade.  While  the  love  of  the  ' '  water  of  their 
village,"  of  its  figs  and  grajjos,  is  still  strong  within 
them,  some  are  forced  to  take  root  in  the   United 


316  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

States.  Their  children  go  to  its  public  schools.  I 
met  a  man  at  the  Cedars  who  had  returned  for  a 
wife,  whom  he  was  to  take  to  his  Kansas  farm.  At 
Jebail,  the  ancient  Byblos,  a  man  informed  me  that 
he  was  coachman  to  the  Governor  of  Vermont.  A 
popular  local  estimate  which  I  have  heard  repeated 
in  the  Lebanon  is  this:  a  third  of  the  emigrants 
settle  in  foreign  lands,  a  third  die,  and  a  third  re- 
turn. It  is  interesting  to  remember  how,  from  the 
cities  at  the  foot  of  this  same  Lebanon,  the  Phoeni- 
cians sailed  away  to  trade  and  ended  by  founding 
colonies. 

Whatever  may  be  the  proportion  of  returned  emi- 
grants, these  are  sufficiently  numerous  to  produce  an 
impression  on  the  mother  country.  Habituated  to 
new  ways  of  doing  things,  they  regard  the  customs 
of  their  forefathers  with  a  critical  eye.  In  some 
cases  they  bring  back  with  them  children  born  in 
America  to  whom  the  old  ways  must  seem  strange. 
Both  children  and  parents  form  a  leaven  which  may 
leaven  the  whole  lump. 

Thus  far  the  so-called  emigration  has  been  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  Christians.  But  there  are 
signs  that  the  voyage-germ  has  inoculated  the  Mo- 
hammedans as  well.  I  have  heard  of  several  who 
are  working  in  American  factories.  In  the  Winter 
of  1903  I  travelled  with  two  Mohammedan  brothers, 
bound  to  seek  their  fortune  in  South  America.  It 
is  significant  that  on  arrival  at  Marseilles  they  ex- 
changed the  traditional  fez  for  the  despised  hat. 

The  process  of  change  varies,  naturally,  in  different 
parts  of  the  land.     It  is  most  rapid  in  the  centres  of 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE        317 

trade  or  of  education,  as  in  the  large  cities  or  in  the 
Lebanon,  where  the  reactionary  forces  of  emigration 
are  chiefly  at  work.  It  is  less  in  evidence  in  the 
rural  districts,  where  the  population  is  homogene- 
ously Mohammedan.  Such  a  district  is  that  be- 
tween Gaza  and  Jaffa,  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Judean  hills.  And  a  precious  district  this 
is,  embodying  ancient  Philistia  and  a  part  of  Judea. 
But  through  this  district  must  inevitably  pass  the 
railway  which  in  the  near  future  is  bound  to  connect 
Egypt  with  Syria.  Philistia — the  highway  of  Egyp- 
tian invaders,  the  thorn  in  the  side  of  Judea,  the 
stronghold  obstinately  contested  by  Saracens  and 
Crusaders— Philistia  has  led  its  daily  life  with  little 
variation  for  four  thousand  years.  Masters  have 
come  and  masters  have  gone.  One  religion  has  re- 
placed another.  But  probably  the  people  have  from 
age  to  age  followed  the  same  customs  as  they  ' '  sat 
down  to  eat  and  to  drink  and  rose  up  to  play. ' '  They 
are  now  threatened  with  a  disturbing  power  stronger 
than  any  they  have  felt  before;  that  they  will  have 
to  catch  a  railway  train  is  a  suggestion  pregnant 
with  wonderful  possibilities.  Comparison  of  their 
own  ways  of  eating  and  drinking  and  playing  with 
those  of  others  will  be  made  easy.  And  comparison 
is  the  mother  of  change. 

But  even  in  the  districts  most  touched  in  the  daily 
life  by  foreign  influences  there  are  special  occasions 
when  the  old  costumes  are  brought  out,  the  old  cus- 
toms are  revived.  On  the  summer  feast-days  the 
inhabitants  of  Bshorroh,  Hasrfin,  and  other  villages 
full  of  returned  emigrants  assemble  at  the  grove  of 


318  PALESTINE  EXPLORATION 

the  Cedars.  Old  chests  have  been  ransacked  for 
richly  embroidered  garments.  The  bride  of  twenty- 
five  years  ago  reappears  in  her  former  finery.  Sword- 
dancing,  now  seen  so  rarely,  is  practised  under  the 
stately  trees.  Each  sect  has  its  peculiar  festivals 
where  old  customs  may  be  studied.  The  student  of 
folk-lore  should  make  a  list  of  these  festivals  and 
ascertain  where  they  are  celebrated  with  the  great- 
est pomp.  He  should  mingle  with  the  crowds  at 
some  great  Maronite  convent  during  the  week  in 
August  in  which  falls  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin. 
He  should  follow  the  Moslem  procession  on  Thurs- 
day of  the  Greek  Holy  Week  out  from  St.  Stephen's 
Gate  at  Jerusalem,  past  the  slopes  of  Olivet,  dotted 
with  scores  of  tents,  over  the  barren  hills  of  Judea 
to  Neby  Musa,  the  alleged  tomb  of  Moses,  where,  for 
three  days,  peasants  and  nobles  keep  holiday.  He 
should  plan  to  arrive  at  Kubb  Elias,  on  the  plain  of 
Coele-Syria,  on  the  same  week  of  another  year,  when 
a  descendant  of  the  Prophet,  mounted  on  an  Arab 
horse,  rides  over  the  prostrate  bodies  of  a  score  of 
men  lying  side  by  side.  He  should  also  keep  in 
touch  with  current  events,  ready  at  short  notice  to 
attend  the  enthronement  of  a  Patriarch  or  the 
funeral  of  some  great  Druse  Sheikh. 

This  question  of  the  survival  of  the  ancient  life 
brings  us  back  very  close  to  the  controlling  motive 
of  Palestine  Exploration.  Few  explorers  have  not 
been  pilgrims  also.  What  traveller  in  the  Holy 
Land  with  any  historical  imagination  does  not  find 
this  dominated  by  one  Figure  ?    At  the  foot  of  Her- 


THE  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  FUTURE       319 

mon,  around  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  in  the  coasts  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  among  the  fertile  valleys  of  Samaria,  on 
the  rocky  hills  of  Judea,  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem, 
by  the  banks  of  the  Jordan — wherever  the  traveller 
goes  there  this  Figure  glides  before  him.  But 
clearer  still  is  the  Figure  mirrored  in  the  life  of  the 
people  to-day,  territorial  descendants  of  those  who 
lived  in  the  land  nineteen  hundred  years  ago.  Riding 
up  the  steep  hills  which  mount  westward  from  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  I  met,  one  morning  in  Spring,  a  poor 
Arab  walking  beside  a  donkey  which  carried  his 
sick  wife.  He  called  to  me  to  stop;  he  seized  my 
bridle :  Did  I  know  of  one  who  healed  at  Tiberias  ? 
"Was  he  wise  ?  Was  he  kind  ?  Would  he  cure  the 
woman  ?  And  as  I  rode  on  toward  Nazareth,  hav- 
ing reassured  the  man,  I  fell  to  thinking  that  just 
such  a  scene  might  have  been  enacted  on  that  very 
road  in  the  days  of  Him  in  whose  name  the  mission- 
ary doctor  at  Tiberias  ministers  to  the  suffering  to- 
day. For  down  every  road  leading  to  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  there  flocked  men  and  women  bearing  the 
sick,  half  in  doubt,  half  in  hope  that  One  who 
healed,  whom  they  knew  only  by  hearsay,  might  be 
gracious  to  them  also. 


INDEX 


Aahmes,  14  /. 

Abana,  79,  100. 

Abbassides,  67. 

Abilene,  112/. 

Abraham,  Abram,  9. 

Abu  Dis,  54. 

Abu-el-Fida,  70. 

Abu  Ghosh,  134. 

Abu  Shusheh  (Gezer),  282. 

Abyssinia,  155  /. 

Aceldama,  92. 

Achzib.  21. 

Acre,    17,   21,   58,   71,   73,   76, 

83,   86,   96,    107,    112,    113, 

116,  117,  120,  135,  136,  147, 

165,  200. 
Acre,  bishop  of,  104. 
Acta  Sanctorum,  66. 
Adam,  8/.,  89. 
Adamnan,  42/.,  61,  62,  64. 
Adana,  161. 
'Adlun       (Ornithopolis) ,     142, 

145. 
Adonis,  cult  of,  248,  249. 
Adonis,  river  of,  251. 
Adriatic,  36. 
Adrichomius,  43. 
Adummim,  50. 
Aelana,  Gulf  of,  179. 
Aelia  {Jerusalem),  47. 
Aeliu.s,  Antoninus   Pius,    143. 
Africa,  Interior  }>arls  of,  177. 
Ai,  108. 
Ailah,  59. 
Ajalon,  50. 
Ajh'm,  272. 

Akaba,   179,   194,  203. 
Akabah,  203. 
Aleppo,    16,    18,   71,    133,    142, 

145,  151,  159,  164,  171,  174, 

178,  180  /. 


Alexander,  Bp.  of  Cappadocia, 
45. 

Alexander  the  Great,  24,  33, 
185. 

Alexander,  Mole  of,  29,  33. 

Alexander,  sarcophagus  of,  252. 

Alexandretta,  145. 

Alexandria,  25,  36,  67,   175. 

Alexandroschenc  (Scandalium), 
145. 

'Ali  Bey  el  'Abbassi,  175,  176. 

Altmann,  Bp.,  of  Passau,  66. 

Amanus,  ML,  27. 

Amatu,  15. 

Amaur  (Amorites),  16/. 

Amazons,  105. 

Amenemhat  I,  13. 

Amenhotep  III,  16. 

Amenhotep  I\^  16. 

American  Archaeological  Ex- 
pedition to  Syria,  241,  285. 

American  Expedition  to  the 
Dead  Sea,  239. 

American  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Society,  283. 

American  School  for  Oriental 
Study  and  Research,  285. 

'Amyvnn,  71,  148,  308. 

Ammianshi,  ruler  of  Upper 
Tenu,  13. 

Amman,  2.39. 

Airimonitis,  173. 

Amor  (Omar),  Saracen  chief, 
87. 

Amorite  League,  292. 

Amorites,  10,  16  /. 

Amorrhilis,  173. 

Amrit  (Marathus),  246,  247. 

'Amrit,  Sepulchral  Towers  of, 
109,  144. 

'Amschit,  village  of,  251. 


321 


322 


INDEX 


Anab,  210. 

Anaihoth,  210. 

Anderson,  Dr. ,  geologist,  238. 

Anderson,     Lieutenant,     265, 

268. 
Anonymous  Pilgrim,  97. 
Antaradus    (Tartus),    58,    65, 

246. 
Antilibanus,    26,    30,    33,    79, 

80,  137,  163,  165,  180  /.,  209. 
Antioch,  36,  46,  49,  54,  59,  76, 

79,  100,  106,  200. 
Antiochia  Seleucia,  26. 
Antipatris,  48,  116. 
Antonine  Itinerary,  35,  46. 
Antonines,  the,  24,  33,  248. 
Antoninus,  martyr  (of  Placen- 

tia),  45,  56,  57,  58,  59. 
Antoninus,    martyr.    Itinerary 

of,  57. 
Apameia,  149,  180. 
Aphek,  108. 
Aphrodite,  site  of  shrine  to,  215, 

217. 
Arabia,  30,  33,  174,  178. 
Arabia,  Felix,  27. 
Arabia,  Petraea,  155,  174,  196. 
Arabias,  three,  90. 
Arabs,  29,  84,   135,  155,   162, 

182,  240. 
Aradus,  242,  244  (RuM),  245. 
'Arak-el-Emir,  183. 
Area  ('Arka),  146. 
Archas  ('Arka),  79. 
Arculf,  Bp.  of  Caul,  42/.,  60, 

61,  62,  63,  64,  66,  128. 
Arezzo  in  Tuscany,  55. 
Argyll,  Duke  of,  257. 
Aristeas,  25. 
Aristobulus,  24. 
'Arka,  73. 
Arkites,  146. 
Armenia,  117. 
Armenians,  97. 
Armstrong,   Mr.    George,    258, 

268. 
Armstrong's      "  Names      and 

Places,"  210/.,  213. 
Arnon,  102. 
Aroer,  115. 


Arrian,  24. 

Arsiif,  76. 

Arundale,  149. 

Arvad,  247. 

Arvadites,  244,  245,  247. 

Ascalon,  1,  21,  23,  30,  59,  76, 

83,  104,  141,  200,  293. 
Ascension,  site  of  the,  218,  219. 
Ascent  of  Gur,  89. 
Ashdod   (Azotus),   23,   30,   59, 

106,  200. 
Ashurnatsirpal  III,  19,  20. 
Asia  Minor,  181,  46,  153,  181. 
Assassins,  99. 
Assyria,   1,  2,  20,  21,  22.  23, 

298. 
Assyrians,  19. 
Athos,  Mt.,  24. 
Augustus  (Caesar),  36. 
Ausitis  (Uz),  54. 
Austrian  Government,  284. 
Azekah,  108,  169,  281,  292. 
Azotus  (Ashdod),   23,    29,   59, 

83,  116. 


Baal,  251. 

Bdb-Nebi/  Baud,  47. 

Baalbcc    (Heliopolis),    59,    60, 

89,  137,  138,  139,  141,  142, 

143,  144,  148,  161,  164,  166, 

170, 187, 199, 286. 
Baal  Mean,  89. 
Babylon,  207. 
Babylonia,  1,  2,  67. 
Bad'iay  Lehlich  ('Ali  Bey),  175. 
Baghdad,  102. 

Baldensperger,  Mr.,  264,  310. 
Baldinsel,  82. 
Baldwin,  I.,  87,  106. 
Banias,  6,  80,  85,  115,  199. 
Bankes,  William  John,   149/., 

181,  183. 
Barada,  79,  148,  171. 
Barbaro,  Ermolao,  150. 
Barclay,  Dr.,  237/. 
Bashan,6,H5,  180/.,  181. 
Batanea,  173. 
Batrnn,  243. 
Beazley's    "Dawn    of  Modern 


INDEX 


323 


Geography,"  40,46/.,  52/., 

55  /. 
Bedawin    (Shasu),    16/.,    174, 

179,  210. 
Bede,  Ven.,  62. 
Beisdn,  71,  114. 
Beitin,  81. 
Beit  Jibrin,  38,  82,   100,  201, 

206,  308. 
Belgrade  (Singidunum) ,  46. 
Belinas  (Banias),  79. 
Belka,  Castle  of,  176. 
Belon  du  Mans,  Pierre,  133/., 

134,  137,  150.  156. 
Benjamin  of  Tudela,  99,  100, 

101,  115/. 
Benzinger,  Dr.,  284. 
Berghaus,  181,  195. 
Berytus  (Beyrout),  60. 
Berlin  Museum,  284. 
Bernard,  Dr.,  217. 
Bernard  the  Monk,  45,  66,  67, 

68,  185. 
Bernard  the  Wise,  Itinerary  of, 

66. 
Bernhardt     de    Breydenbach, 

Dean  of  Mayence,  121,  122. 
Bertou,  traveller,  189  /. 
Bertrandon  de  la  Brocquicre, 

119,  125,  186. 
Besant,  Sir  Walter,  257,,  258, 

260,  261,  264/. 
Betlmny,  48,  135,  219. 
Bethel,  42,  47,  52,  81,  82,  157, 

210,  227. 
Beth-haccerem,  108. 
Beth  Jesimoth,  112  f. 
Bethlehem,   34,   48,   50,  66,  76, 

77,  84,  87,  96,  130,  138,  154, 

157,  200  /. 
Bethlehem,  Basilica  at,  237. 
Bethorons,  Two,  50. 
Bethshean  (Scythopolis),  46,80, 

85,  114,  168. 
Beth-rehob,  108. 
Bethsaifia,  108. 
Brth-Shemesh,  211. 
Bcto  Galjra  (Beit  Jibrtn),  201. 
Beyrout,   15,   16/.,   17,  GO,  73, 

96,  117,  120,  153,  161,  183, 


197,  198,  199,  238,  242,  311, 

312,  313. 

{Berytus),  60. 

,  its  colleges,  313,  314. 

Birch,  W.  F.,  235. 

Birket  Mamilla,  168. 

Blr-es-Seba,  82. 

Bireh,  81. 

Black,  Sergeant,  268. 

Bliss,  F.  J.,  12/.,  114/.,  279/., 

282/.,  296/.,  303/. 
Bochart,  152. 
Bocharti,  43. 
Boniface,  St.,  64. 
Bonomi,  149. 
Book  of  Numbers,  10. 
Book  of  Wisdom,  49. 
Bordeaux  (Bordigala),  46. 
Bordeaux  Pilgrim,  45,  46,  48, 

49,  50,  57,  185,  204,  232. 
Bordigala  (Bordeaux),  46. 
Botta's   ".Monument   de   Nin- 

eve,"  208. 
Bozra,  178,  179,  180  /. 
Briisa,  120. 
Bsherreh,  317. 

Buckingham,  J.  S.,  149/.,  180. 
Buka'a,  80. 
Burchard  of  Mt.  Zion,  42,  43, 

76,    77,    78/.,    80,    81,    82, 

107,  108,  110,  112,  113,  118, 

119,  121,  125,  132,  148,  186. 

204,   248  (Burchardus,  Bro- 

cardus,  Borcardus). 
Burckhardt,  Johannes  Ludwig, 

133,    149,    156,    174/.,    177, 

179,  180,  181,  188,  195,  202, 

210/. 
Butler,    Dr.    Howard   Crosby, 

285,  2S6. 
Byblos  (Jebail),  244,  245,  248, 

249,2,50,  251,  316. 
Byzantine  lamps,  296. 

Cadytis,  23. 

Ccesarca  Palestina,  46,  85,  105. 

Co'sarca  Philipjn,   59,   66,   79, 

84,  85,  113,  1.3S,  148. 
Cwsnrea  Maritima,  99  /. 
Caiaphas,  House  of,  47. 


324 


INDEX 


Cairo,  Museum  at,  309. 
Caius,  Csesar,  137. 
Calinus,  a  dragoman,  124. 
Caliph  Al-Hakim,  72. 
Caliph  Al  Mamun,  69. 
Caliph  Omar,  61. 
Calvary,  Gordon's,  232. 
Calvary,  ML,  88,  168,  217,  232. 
Cana,  84. 

Canaan,  Land  of,  91. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  132. 
Capernaum,  So,  108,  142,  209. 
Cappadocia,  22. 
Carmel  in  Judah,  210. 
Carmel,  Mt.,  18,  46,  58,  85,  125, 

135,  162,  200. 
Carmoly's,  Itineraires,  115/. 
Carrey,  French  artist,  136. 
Castillo,  157. 
Castle  of  Hyrcanus,  183. 
Catherine,  Tomb  of  St.,  126. 
Cather^vood,  149,  208. 
Cedars,  The,  161,  166,  199,  316, 

318. 
Celsius,  A.,  154  /. 
Cenotaphs  of  the  Patriarchs,  175. 
Chabas,  18  /. 
Cfialdea,  117. 

Chaplin,  Dr.  Thomas,  115/. 
Chateau  Pclerin,  141,  147. 
Chateaubriand,   134,  146,  175, 

176,  177, 188. 
Chedorlaomer,  9. 
Chinncreth,  Sea  of,  6. 
Chorazin,  108. 
Chosrocs  II,  the  Persian,  61. 
Christian  sects,  104. 
Christians,  Native,  72,  97,  128, 

175,   176,   186,  242,  263. 
Chronicles,  First  Book  of,  12. 
Chronicles,  Second  Book  of,  12. 
1  Chron.    vi,    54—81:    xiii-xix, 

11/. 

1  Chron.  xii,  3-7,  12  /. 
2Chron.iii,  iv,  12/. 
2Chron.  xi,6-10,  12/. 
2Chron.  xxxii,.30,235. 

2  Chron.  xxxv,  22-23. 
Church  of  the  Resurrection  of 

our  Lord,  87. 


Church  of  St.  Simeon  Stylities, 
145. 

Church  of  the  Virgin,  92. 

Cilida,  22,  26,  27,  30,  98. 

Circassian  Colony,  308. 

City  of  David,  235. 

Clarke,  Dr.  Edward  Daniel, 
172,  173. 

Claudius  Ptolemy,  33,  69,  185. 

Clermont-Ganneau,  Professor, 
260,  272. 

Ccele-Syria,  10,  27,  98,  318. 

Colmar,  Monk  of,  35. 

Commagene,  27. 

Conder,  Col.  C.  R.,  13/.,  15/., 
16/.,  17/.,  43,  91,  106,  110, 
135,  157  /.,  205,  228,  229, 
230/.,  231,  266,  270,  271. 

Constantine,  Emperor,  3,  45, 
61,  215,  216,  217,  218,  219, 
233. 

Constantinople,  36,  46,  48,  62, 
66,  132,  182/.,  309. 

Constantinople,  Emperor  of, 
74. 

Constantinople,  Imperial  Mu- 
seum at,  252,  298,  305,  306. 

Coryphaeus,  Mt.,  26. 

Cosquiis,  152. 

Cotovicus  (Kootwyk),  136  /., 
137,  139,  140,  157,  158,  187. 

Crac  (Kerak),  76. 

Crusaders,  69,  75,  76,  77,  82, 
84,  90,  103,  104,  106,  111, 
112,  133.  147,  167,  187,  188, 
211,  233,  247.  248,  317. 

Crusades,  137,  148,  163,  204, 
211. 

Curtiss,  Dr.  S.  I.,311/. 

Cypriote  pottery,  290. 

Cyprus,  26,  49,  76,  170. 

Dalmatius,  Consul,  45. 

Damascus,  15  27  59,  63,  64, 
66,71,  72,  75,  79,87,89,  99, 
100,  102.  106,  113,  116,  117, 
120,  139,  159,  165,  170,  180/., 
199,  209. 

Damascus,  Greek  Patriarch  of, 
179. 


INDEX 


325 


Damietta,  170. 

Dan  {Laish),  15,  56,  82,  294. 

Daniel,   Abbot,   78/.,   79,   85, 

86,  90. 
Daniel  the  Reubenite,  115  /. 
Daughters  of  Zion,  237  /. 
D'Arvieux,  136  /.,  141, 142,162. 
David,  3,  12,47,51,89. 
David,  Sepulchre  of,  100. 
Dawkins,  148. 
De  Bruyn,  142. 
De  la  Roque,  137, 140, 141, 142, 

143,  144,  162/.,  163,  164/., 

187. 
De  Luynes,  239. 
De  Saulcy,  225,  236. 
De  Vignes,  239. 
De  Vitry,    Jacques,    70,    78/., 

80,  82,   103,  106,   108,   112, 

186. 
De  Vogiie,  Comte,    236,   237, 

239,  240,  241/.,  242,  286. 
Dead  Sea,  14/.,  27,  29,  31,  .36, 

48,  58,  59,  71,  83,  89,  93, 

103,  111,  113,  130,  134,  141. 

152,    167,    174,    179,    180/., 

181,    189/.,    196,   237,   238, 

239,241. 
Decapods,  31,80,  173. 
Derby,  Earl  of,  257. 
"Description  of  the  East,"  by 

Pococke,  168. 
Desert  of  the  Exodus,  269. 
Deut.  i.  6-7:  iv,  47-49,  10/. 
Deut.  iii,  17,  16/. 
"Deutscher  Palastina  Verein," 

283. 
Deuteronomy,  Book  of,  10. 
Devonshire,  Duke  of,  257. 
Dhoheriyeh,  220. 
IXbon,  115. 
Dibs,  Bishop,  313. 
Dickie,  A.   C,    12/.,  60,   114, 

276,279/. 
Dictionary  of   National    Biog- 
raphy, 119/. 
Dimashki,  70. 
Diodorus  Siculus,  28,  29. 
Dionysius  Periogeles,  '.in  f. 
Diospoliis  (Lydda),  59. 


Dog  River,  16  /.,  22,  26. 
Dome  of  the  Rock,  233. 
Dominican     Convent     of     St. 

Stephen  at  Jerusalem,  285. 
Dor,  18,  169. 
Dothan,  82  /.,  133,  169. 
Doubdan,  Canon   M.   J.,    141, 

161,162,163,  164/. 
Draa,  178. 

Drake,  Mr.  Tyrwhitt,  269. 
Druses,  100,  167,242,314. 
Druze,       Emir       Fukhreddin 

Ma'an,  147. 
Du  Mans,  187. 
Durzi,  1G8. 

Due  de  Luynes,  196,  239,  240. 
Due  de  Raguse,  183. 

Early    Travels     in     Palestine 

(Wright),  119/. 
Eastern  Hill  at  Jerusalem,  232, 

233,  234. 
Eastern  Palestine,  76,  133. 
Ehal,  Mt.,  41. 

Ecce  Homo  Arch,  139, 157,  2.37/. 
Ecole   Pratique     d' Etudes    Bi- 

bliques,  130. 
Eden,  Mt.,  89. 
Edessa,  54,  106. 
Edom,  21. 

Edom,  Mountains  of,  273. 
Eglon    (Khurbet    'Ajlan),   273, 

291,  296. 
Egypt,   1,  2,   14,   16/.,   17,   19, 

22,  23,  27,  50,  54,  59,  62,  67, 

98,  106,  117,  118,  153,  174, 

178,  179,  182,  260,  275,  276. 

291,  297,  2<)S,  299,  309,  317. 
Egypt,  Sultan  of,  1 18. 
Egyptian  records,  13,  17,  40. 
Egyptian  Sea,  27. 
Egyptian  writers,  22. 
Egyptians,  27,  184. 
Ej-Jib,  169. 
Ekron,  15,  21,  83,  204. 
Elah,   Vale   of,  169,    170,   211, 

292. 
ElculherDpoUs  (B('it-.Iil)riM),  59, 

82,  89,  201,  206,  211,  308. 
Eteuthcrus,  river,  164. 


326 


INDEX 


El  -  Heidhemiyeh    (Skull  -  hill) , 

232. 
Elijah  (Helias),  47. 
El  Kab,  14  /. 
Elgin  Marbles,  252. 
Eliah  de  Ferrare,  115/. 
Elisha,  Fountain  of,  58,  60. 
Elusa,  194. 
Emesa,  59. 

{Hums),  55,  137. 

Emmaus,  89. 

Emperor  William  of  Germany, 

284. 
Encyclopaedia    Biblica,    38  /., 

235. 
Eneglaim,  112  f. 
Engedi,  50,  89. 
Ephcsus,  144. 
Erman.  18  /. 
Ermolao  Barbaro,   150. 
Ernoul's  Chronicle,   107  /. 
Er-Riha,  71. 
Er-Ruheibeh,  212. 
Esarhaddon,  284. 
Eshmunazar,  Sarcophagus   of, 

252. 
Esdraelon,bQ,  66,  115,  151,  165, 

166,  183,  269. 
Eshtnol,  112. 
Eshtemoa,  210. 
Essenes,  31. 
Ethiopia,  117. 
Eucherius,  St.,  55,  57. 

,  Epitome  of,  55. 

Eudocia,  the  Empress,  56,  114, 

279. 
Euge.sippu.s-Fretellus,  88. 
/Tj/p/ira^es,  15,27,30,54,59,171. 
Eusebius,    B.  of   Ca-sarea,  41, 

43,  46,  48,  214-219,  234. 
,  his  Onomasticon,  34,  41, 

42,  185,  215. 
Eiistochium,  49,  51. 
Ezekiel,  39. 

Father  Julius,  140. 
Father  Nau  (Je.suit),  142. 
Fau.stinus,  Moniv,  56. 
Felix  Fabri,  45  /.,  57,  77,  78  /., 
82,  83,   121,   122,   123,   124, 


125,  126,  127,  129,  130,  131, 

132,  135,  149,  173,  187,  241. 
Fellahtn,  246,  270. 
Fergusson,    Mr.     James,    233, 

234,  235,  257,  266. 
Fetellus,  78,  79,  81,  88,  89,  90, 

108,  119,  185,  204. 
Fezzan,  178. 
Franks,  67,  77,  78. 
Fuad  Pasha,  243. 
Fulchre  of  Chartres,  83. 

Gabala  (Jebeleh),  144. 
Gaillardot,  243,  252. 
Galgala  (Gilgal),  58. 
Galilee,  37,  39,  50,  51,  68,  77, 

91,  92,    114,    135,   154,   170, 

198,    200,   208,   228/.,   229, 

244,  308. 
Galilee  of  the  Gentiles,  80,  81 . 
Galilee,  Sea  of,  66.  86,  169,  180. 

23>5,  241,  319. 
Galilee,  Synagogues  in,  265. 
Gamala,  181. 

Gamurrini  (It.  Libr.),  55. 
Gate  of  St.  Stephen,  48. 
Gath,  7,  99,  116,  280,  294,  302. 
Gath-hepher,  89,  100. 
Gaza,  17,  30,  33,  45,  50,  59,  66, 

67,  82,   130,    131,    159,  200, 

204,  272,  317. 
Geba,  210. 
Gebal    {Jebail),    18,    244,   249, 

250. 
Gebelene,  173. 
Genesis,  xiii,  10-6  /. 
Gennesaret,  Lake  of,  31,  111. 
Gerar,  108. 
Gcrasa,  148,  181. 
Gcrizim,  Mt.,  42,  47,  81,  265. 
German    Evangelical    Archaeo- 
logical Institute,  285. 
German  Emperor  William,  284, 

286. 
Gerson  de  Scarmala,  115/. 
Gcsenius,  192. 
Gethocopher,  89. 
Gethsemane,  92. 
Gezer,   15,   17/.,   19,  272,  282, 

290,  298. 


INDEX 


3:i7 


Gezer,  excavations  at,  282. 

Ghazir,  244,  245. 

Gibelin,  82. 

Gibeon,  169. 

Giblites,  17,  100,  144,  244,  248, 

249,  250,  293. 
Gilboa,  ML,  7. 
Gilead,  6,  180/.,  181. 
Gileaditis,  173. 
Gilgal  (Galgala),  58. 
Glaisher,  Mr.  James,  259,  264. 
Golgotha,  8,  95,  215/. 
Goliath,  47. 
Goodwin,  18  /. 
Gordon's  Calvary,  232. 
Graham,  Cyril,  240  /. 
Grand  Emir,  162. 
Great  Temple  at  Baalbec,  144. 
Greece,  1,  24,  136,  181,  248. 
Greek  Christians,  104. 
Greek  pottery,  290. 
Greek  writers,  22,  69. 
Greeks,    22,   24,    35,   97,    158, 

184,  185,  261,  281. 
Gregorians,  97. 
Grove,  Sir  George,  257. 
Groves  of  Daphne,  96. 
Guerin,  H.  V.,  225,  226,  229, 

230,231,271. 
Gulf  of  Akaha,  230. 
Gur,  Ascent  of,  89. 
Guthe,  Dr.,  284. 
Guy  le  Strange,  68. 

Hadad,  the  god,  284. 
Hadrian,  Rom.  Emp.,  24,  33, 

49. 
Hadrian's    Aclia    {Jerusalem), 

47. 
Haifa,   100,  271. 
Halifax,    liev.    William,    140, 

143. 
Hamath,    10,    16,  73,  120,  171, 

312. 
Hamdy  Bey,  Director  General 

of    Musovmi     at    Constanti- 
nople, 309. 
Hamilton  College,   191. 
Hamza,  founder  of  tiie  Druses, 

168. 


Haram  Enclosure  at  Jerusalem, 

149,  208,  267,  273. 
Haram-esh-Sherif,  235,   237. 
Haran,  52. 

Hashany  River,  6,  80. 
Hasbega,  199. 
Hasrun,  317. 
Hasselquist,  Fridrich,  153,  154, 

171,   188. 
Hattin,  73,  74. 

,  Battle  of,  101. 

'Haurdn,  148,  178,  180/.,  183, 

200,  237,  240,  286. 
Hebrew,    Hebrews,    184,    207, 

280. 
Hebrew  inscriptions,  291. 
Hebron,  10,  48,  50,  59,  66.  74, 

76,   82/.,    85,   86,   87,    101, 

115/.,    117,    130,    159,    174, 

175,  210,  220,  229. 
Hecata'us  of  Abdera,  24. 
Hedjaz,  175. 
Helena,  St.,  46,  132,  138,  217, 

219. 
Helias  (Elijah),  47. 
Heliopolis  (Baalbec),  59,  143. 
Henriette,  Kenan's  sister,  245. 
Heraclius,  61. 
Hercules,  the  god,  23. 
Hercules,  Temple  of,  22,  23. 
Herculaneum,  136. 
Herman,  ML,  42,  80,  111,  113, 

199,  209,  241,  318. 
Herod    (the    Great),    39,    100, 

147, 236. 
Herodotus,  22,  23,  184. 
Heshbon,  115. 
Hcyman,  Prof.  John,  135,  144, 

166. 
Ileyman,  Dr.  J.  W.,  166. 
Ilezckiah,  20,  21,  235. 
Hill  of  Evil  Counsel,  172 
llillorus,  M.,   154/. 
Hilprecht,  Dr.  H.  V.,  302  /. 
Hinnom,  Vnllcy  of,  92. 
Hiram's  tomb  at  T>/rc,  253. 
Hitchcock,  Dr.  Roswell  D.,  ISO, 

190,  191,  203,  222,  223. 
,  his  life  of  Dr.  Robinson, 

190  /. 


328 


INDEX 


Hittite,  Hittites,  16  /.,  284. 
Hodoeporicon,    65,    66,    82  /., 

116/. 
Holy  City,  66,  70,  76,  91,  92, 

96,  104,  128,  134,  232,  233, 

237,  259,  265. 
Holy  Land,  40,  44,  et  passim. 
Holy  Places,  57,  62,  90,  94,  97, 

117,  124,  126,  130,  150,  159, 

160. 
Holy  Sepulchre,  Church  of  the, 

47,  54,  61,  63,  68,  72,  74,  84, 

86,  88,  90,  96,  102,  122,  126, 

127,  128,  129,  157,  160,  168, 

176,  213,  214,  215-219,  221, 

227,  233,  237,  265,  266. 
Hor,  Wilderness  of,  89. 
Hor,  ML,  179,  221. 
Horns  of  Hattin,  75. 
Hospitallers,  93. 
Hideh,  Lake  o/,  6,  211,  212. 
Hull,   Professor  Edward,   260, 

273. 
Hums   {Emesa),    71,    73,    137, 

139,  171,  200. 
Hy  (lona),  01. 
Hyrcanus,  son  of  Joseph,  Castle 

of,  183. 

lakob,  de  Paris,  115/. 

Ibn  Batiitah,  70. 

Ibn  Haukal,  69. 

Ibrahim  Pasha,  134,  183. 

Idhna,  201. 

Idrisi,  69,  70. 

Idumea,  99,  173. 

India,  117,  132,  153. 

Invention  of  the  Cross,   216- 

219. 
lona,  61. 
Irby,  Charles  L.,    149/.,    156, 

181,  182,  188,  204/. 
Isaac's  wells,  212. 
Inland  of  Riidd,  171. 
Lshak  Cheio,   115/. 
Islam,  60,  70,  71,  103. 
Israel,  16/.,  20,  131. 
Israelites,  10,  53. 
Issus,  284. 
/.SSW.S,  Gtdf  of,  30. 


Istakhri,  69. 
Iturea,  80,  81. 

Jabesh  Gilead,  112  f. 

Jabbok,  79. 

Jacob,  81. 

Jacobites,  97. 

Jacob's  Well,  47,  63. 

Jacques  de  Vitry,  70,  78  /.,  80, 
82,  103,  106,  108,  112,  186, 
187. 

Jaffa,  76,  77,  85,  97,  120,  123, 
125,  130,  136,  157,  161,  227, 
272,  317. 

Jaffa  Gate,  109. 

Jamnia,  83. 

Jatlir,  210. 

Jebail,  17,  73,  100,  144,  243, 
244,  245,  248,  250,  251.  253, 
254,  293,  316. 

Jebeleh,  144. 

Jedur,  80. 

Jehoshaphat,  Valley  of,  92,  139. 

Jemal-ed-Din,  70. 

Jenin,  183. 

J  crash,  148. 

Jericho,  6,  42,  48,  58,  60,  66, 
71,85,93,  123,  134,207,267, 
313. 

Jerome,  St.,  41,  42,  43,  44,  46  /., 
49,  50,  52,  55,  62,  79,  82,  89, 
100,  204,  210. 

,    his    Onomasticon,     185, 

228/.,  232,  236,  259,  260, 
261,  263,  265,  268,  272,  276, 
278,  279,  284,  285,  296,  297, 
303  /.,  307,  311,  314,  315,  319. 

Jerusalem,  8,  16  /.,  et  jxissitn. 

Jerusalem,  Breviary  of,  57,  58. 

Jerusalem,  Cemetery  in  (Prot- 
estant), 157. 

Jerusalem,  excavations  at:  bj* 
Warren,  265;  bv  Bliss  and 
Dickie,  276;  by  (kithe,  286. 

Jeru.salem,  Governor  of,  134. 

Jerusalem,  Siege,  37. 

Jerusalem,  St.  Stephen's  Gate 
at,  318. 

Jerusalem,  Temple  of,  37,  87. 

Jerusalem  topography,  38. 


INDEX 


329 


Jewish  writers,  22. 

Jews,  32,  137. 

Jezreel  {Stradeld),  46,  47,  166, 

211. 
Job,  54. 
Joharin    Zuallart    (Zuallardo), 

138,  157,  158. 
John,  St.,  57. 
John  XXI,  Pope,  111. 
John  of  Antioch,  143. 
John  of  Wurzburg,   78/.,  79, 

81,  88,  90,  94. 
Jokneam,  112  /. 
Jonah,  89. 
Joppa,  15,  18,  27,  30,  49,  84, 

170. 
Jor  and  Dan,  79. 
Jordan,  5,  6,  10,  11,  27,  30,  48, 

50,  52,  56,  60,  66,  73,  76,  79, 

80,86,93,  114,  125,  130,  134, 

138,  170,  184,  200,  227.  238, 

240,  284,  319. 
Jordan  Valley,  189  /. 
Josephus,  24,  25,  31,  36,  37, 

39,  40,  100,  147,  208. 
Joshua,  Book  of,  11. 
Joshua,  89. 
Joshua,  iii,  13-15,  6  /. 
,  xii,  1-24;    xiii,  2-6;   xx, 

7-8,11/. 

,  XV,  5;  xviii,  19,  6  /. 

,  xxii,  5,  6  /. 

Joshua,  xviii,  20;  xix,  34,  5  /. 
— ,  xix,  22,  34,  6  /. 
Judah,  12,  20,  210. 
Judea,  27,  30,  31,  37,  39,  91, 

152,  185,  200,  227,  228,  229, 

311,  317,  318,  319. 
Judea,  Western,  171. 
Jndean  hills,  137,  157,  317. 
Judges,  Hook  of,  12. 
Judges,  i,  21-35,  12/. 
Judges,  iii,  28,  6  /. 
Junek,  244. 
Junieh,  plain  of,  164. 
Justinian,  57. 
Jultali,  210. 

Karlesk,  15,  16/. 
Kadesh-Barnea,  9. 


Kadesh  (on  the  Orontes),  23. 

Kadesh-Naphtali,  108,  209  /. 

Karnak,  14,  16  /. 

Kasmiyeh,  river,  164. 

KasyAn,  209  /. 

Kedron  Valley,  48,  109,  157. 

Kefr  Dikkerin,  38. 

Kefr  Kuk,  206. 

Keilah,  89. 

Kerak    (Crac),    77,    102,    174, 

238,  239. 
Kesrouan  Mountains,  153. 
Khaled  the  Sword  of  God,  314. 
Khalil  Bey,  309. 
Khan  Jubb  Yusif,  82/.,  133. 
Kheta  (Hittites),  16/. 
Khurbet  'Ajldn,  231,  273,  291, 

296. 
Khurbet  'Aziz,  230. 
Khurbet  Fahil,  204  /. 
Khurbet  Mejdel  Baa',  229. 
Khurbet    Shuweikeh    {Shocoh), 

292. 
Khurdadbih,  68. 
Kiepert,  204  /. 
Kings,  First  Book  of,  12. 
1  Kings,  iv,  7-19,  12  /. 
1  Kings,  vi,  vii,  12  /. 
1  Kings,  vii,  46,  etc.,  6  /. 

1  Kings,  xvi,  25-28,  16  /. 

2  Kings,  xxxii,  29,  23  /. 
Kirjath  Sepher,  89. 
Kirkland,     Miss     EHza     (Mrs. 

Robinson),  191. 
Kitchener,  Lord,  273. 
Kootwyk  (Cotovicus),  137, 158. 
Korte,  Jonas,  168. 
Krafft,  233. 

Krencker,  architect,  286. 
Krikhor,  18. 
Kubb,  Eli&s,  318. 
Kubeibeh,  village  of,  207. 
Kula'at  Kurein,  211. 
Kurmul,  210. 
Kuteifeh,  139. 

Laborde,  149/.,  156,  180,  183, 

195,  19(). 
Lachi.sh,  17,  21,  50,   108,  131, 

148/.,    207,    230,    231,    260, 


330 


INDEX 


273,  274,  275,  276,  290,  292, 

293,  298,  301,  302. 
"LaMerMorte,"239. 
Lagrange,  R.  P.,  56. 
Laish  {Dan),  15,  115. 
Lake  of  Gennesaret,  31,  111. 
Lake  of  Huleh,  6. 
Lamartine,  134,  146,  176,  177, 

183,  188. 
Lane,  Mr.  J.  C,  283. 
Laodicea,  83,  106,  140/.,  253. 
Larissa,  149. 
Lartet,  geologist,  239. 
Latakia,  85,  106,  170,  252. 
Laura  of  Mar  Saba,  85. 
Laurent,  109/.,  110. 
Layard's    "Nineveh     and    its 

Remains,"  208. 
Lebanon,  Lebanons,  9,   18,  42, 

66,  80,  87,  96,  105,  111,  117, 

120,  151,  161,  163,  165,  170, 

172,  199,  200,  222,  239,  242, 

243,  244,  312,  313,  316,  317. 
Le  Brun,   153/. 
Legh.  Dr.  Thomas,  149/.,  182. 
Leja,  80. 

Lejjun  (LegTo),  7,  115,  166,  211. 
Leontes,  240. 
"  Les    Eglises    de     la    Terre 

Sainte,"  by  de  Vogiie,  239. 
Leshem,  115. 

Le  Strange,  Guy,  68,  70. 
"Le  Temple  de  Jerusalem,"  by 

de  Vogiie,  239. 
Levites,  11. 
Lexotius,  49. 

Leyden  University,  150,  166. 
Lihnah,  89. 
Liergue,  de,  151. 
Linant,  149/.,  180. 
Linnaeus,  153,  154,  188. 
Litany, Natural  Bridge  over,200. 
Lot's  wife,  94. 
Louvre  Museum,  246,  252,  253, 

272. 
Ludolph  von  Suchem,  82,  102, 

116,  117,  186. 
Luise,  Therese  Albertine  (Mrs. 

Robin.son),  192. 
Lushington,  16  /. 


Luxor,  16  /. 

Luz  (Bethel),  81. 

Lycus,  26. 

Lydda,  48,  115. 

Lynch,  Lieut.,  189/.,  238. 

Ma'arrah,  171. 

Macalister,  R.  A.  S.,  17  /.,  247, 

280,  281,  282,  290,  296  /., 

298,  303  /. 
Macarius,    Bp.    of    Jerusalem, 

216,  217,  220. 
Maccabees,  The,  235,  282. 
Machpelah,  Cave  of,  251. 
Madeba,  56,  89. 
Madeba,  Map  Mosaic  of,  252. 
Magdala,  108. 
Magdolus,  23. 
Mahanaim,  108. 
Mahumeria,  81. 
Majus,  152. 

Maketa  (Megiddo),  15. 
Makkeda,  108. 
Malta,  255. 
M  alula,  170. 
Mandeville,  Sir  John,  117,  119, 

186. 
Mangles,    James,    149/.,    156, 

181,182,  188,204/. 
Mannert,  36  /. 
Manuel  Comnenus,  96. 
Maon,  210. 
Marathus    ('Amrtt),    144,  146, 

246,  247. 
Mar  Saba,  Monastery  of,  85,  96. 
Marcella,  49,  51,  52. 
Marco  Polo,  111,  132. 
Mareshah  (Marissa),  100,   115, 

211,  281,  292. 
Marino   Sanuto,   78/.,  79,   81, 

82,  111,  114,  119,  186,  204, 

279. 
Marissa,  100,  247,  281,  292. 
Mariti,  Abbe,   171. 
Maronites,  158,  243,  31S. 
Maronites,    Patriarch    of    the, 

243. 
Marseilles,  315,  316. 
Mary  Magdalene,  95. 
Maspero,  14/.,  15/. 


INDEX 


331 


Maundrell,  Rev.  Henry.,  134, 
136/.,  137,  140,  144,  145, 
147,  148,  163,  164,  165,  171, 
173,  187,  206. 

Mauss,  architect,  239. 

McCormick  Theological  Semi- 
nary, 311  /. 

Mecca,  73,  74,  120,  175. 

Mediaeval  Jewish  Chronicles, 
115/. 

Medinet  Habu,  16  /. 

Mediolanum  (Milan),  46. 

Mediterranean  Sea,  36,  79. 
159,  189/.,  317. 

Megiddo,  7,  15,  17,  18,  23,  115, 
166,  211,  284. 

Mejdel  Baa',  230. 

Memoires  de  I'lnstitut,  119/. 

Men  with  horns,  105 

Men  with  tails,  105. 

Menke,  30. 

Mer'ash,  292. 

Merenptah,  16  /. 

Merom,  Waters  of,  6,  15,  113, 
170,  211. 

Merrill,  Dr.  Selah,  283. 

Mesopotamia,  22,  52,  98,  207, 
299. 

Mesopotamian  records,  40. 

Mesopotaniiaiis,  The  early,  184. 

Michmash,  108,  210. 

Migdol  {near  Egypt),  23  f. 

Moab,  21,  239. 

Moab,  Mountains  of,  273. 

"Moab,  The  Land  of,"  211  /. 

Moabite  Stone,  272,  288. 

Moahitis,  173. 

"Modern  Traveller,"   195. 

Modestus,  01.  62. 

Mogqrcbt/n,  179. 

Mohammed,  103,  110,  176,  314. 

Mohammedanism,   104,   168. 

Mohar  (a  traveller),  18. 

Monastery  of  the  B.  V.  Mary, 
85. 

Monconys,  Baltha.sar  de,  136/., 
140,  151,  161,  167. 

Mont  fort,  211. 

Montreal,  76,  103. 

More  and  Beke,  189/. 


Moriah,  ML,  39,  109. 
Morocco,  175. 

Morocco,  Emperor  of,  175,  176. 
Morrison,  Walter,  M.  P.,  267. 
Moscow,  182  /. 
Moses,  27,  28,  31,  54. 
Moses,  Alleged  tomb  of,  318. 
Moslem,  61,  68,  71,  73,  75,  76, 

77,  97,   102,   133,   158,   175, 

186,  187,  243,  245,  263,  265, 

280,  318. 
Mosque  at  Hebron,  175. 
Mosque  of  Omar,  74,  109    130, 

175,  233,  237/.,  266. 
Mount  Moriah,  109. 
Mount  of  Olives,  130. 
Mount  of  Temptation,  93,  218. 
Mount  Zion,  109. 
Mugharet  'Adlun,  252. 
Mujeddd',  7. 
Mujir-ed-Din,  68. 
Mukaddasi,   45/.,  69,  70,   73, 

74,  186. 
Midler,  13,  14/. 
Mykenean  pottery,  290,  297. 

Nabata^ans,  29. 

Nahleh,  Temple  of,  137. 

Nahr-el-Kebir,  164. 

Naphtali,  5. 

Napoleon  III.,  242,  243. 

Nau,    Michel,    Jesuit    Father, 

163. 
Nazareth,  34,  77,  120,  135,  161, 

165,  ISO/.,  183,  227. 
Nasir-i-Khusrau,  45/.,  69,  73. 
Naiiras,  312. 
Nazareth,   47,   48,   58,   59,  66, 

76,  84,  85,  94,  130,  135,  313, 

319. 
Neander,  192. 
Neapolis,  30,  47,  59. 
Neapolis  (Shechem),  47,  58,  82. 
Nebo,  54. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  02. 
Neby  M  Asa,  318. 
Nebij  Samivil,  82  /.,  92,  169. 
Nebif  Yilnis,  198. 
Necho  II.,  23. 
Nehemiah,  Book  of,  12,  235. 


332 


INDEX 


Nehemiah,  Jewish  leader,   12, 

23,  235,  279. 
Neh.,  iii,  xii,  27-40,  12  /. 
Neh.,  xi,  25-26,  12/. 
Nestorians,  97. 
Neubauer     (geographer),     3S, 

115/. 
Nicolai  de  Sepulchris  Hebraeo- 

rum,  146  /. 
Nicopolis,  68. 
Niebuhr,  Carsten,  148/.,  171. 

172  /. 
Nile  Valley,  299. 
Nineveh,  249. 
Ni-pur,  Mt.,  20. 
Nippur,  302  /. 
Nob,  108. 

Normandy,  Duke  Robert  of,  83. 
Northern  Syria,  109,  111. 
Nuhia,  178. 
Numbers,  xxxiii,  10  /. 
Numbers,  xxxiv,  10  /. 

"Old  Compendium,"  88. 
Oliphant,  Laurence,  68. 
Olives,  Mt.  of,  48,  62,  64,  92. 
Olivet,  The  slopes  of,  318. 
Olshausen,  205. 
Ommayad  Caliphs,  61,  67. 
Omri,  20. 
Onomasticon     (Eusebius     and 

Jerome),  34,  41,  43,  44,  52, 

55,  185,  201. 
OpM,  Hill  of,  170,  267,  284. 
Ornithopolis,  142. 
Orontes,  23,  79,  180,  240. 
Ottoman  territory,  243,  254. 
Owen,  Professor,  257. 

Padi,  21. 

Paganism,  40. 

Palace  of  Herod,  138. 

Palestine  Association,  256. 

Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  3, 
4,  17,  132,  156,  184,  204,  205, 
206,  224,  225,  226,  239,  247, 
255-287,   310,   318. 

Palestine,  1,  2,  3,  et  passim. 

Palestina  Prima,  99  /. 

Palestina  Secunda,  99  /. 


Palestina  Tertia,  99  /. 
Palmer,  Professor,  269. 
Palmyra,  31  /.,  143,  148  /.,  239. 
Palmyra,  Sheikh  of,  313. 
Paneas,  31,  42,  115. 
Parchi,  Rabbi.  114,  115/. 
Parthenon,  136. 
Pass  of  Winds,  53. 
Paton,  L.  B.,  13  /.,  16  /.,  18  /., 

23/. 
Paul  the  Apostle,  9  /. 
Paula,  41,  49,  50. 
Pella,  200,  204/. 
Pennekheb,  14/. 
Pentaur  (royal  scribe),  16/. 
Perea,  39. 
Persia,  68,  187. 
Petachia  of  Ratisbonne,  101  /., 

115/. 
Peter,  Burgundian  Monk,  63. 
Periegesis  of  Dionysius,  35  /. 
Persia,  117. 
Peters,  Dr.  J.  P.,  247. 
Petra,  28  /.,  76,  102,  103,  108  /., 

149,  179,  180,  182,  183,  187, 

208,  221,  239. 
Petrie,  Dr.  Flinders,  15/.,  131, 

230,  231,  200,  273,  274,  275, 

276,  290,  291,  293. 
Petrus  de  Suchen,  116/. 
Peutinger  Table,  35. 
Phar]Mr,  79,  100. 
Philadelphia,  148,  308. 
Philip,  King,  24  /. 
Philip,  King  of  France,  76. 
f  Philistia,  21,  171,  180,  317. 
)  Phili.stine,  Philistines,  18,  200, 

264,  280. 
Philo  of  Byblos,  25,  248. 
Phocas,  78/.,  96,  100. 
Ph<£nicia,  3,  22,  26,  27,  28,  33, 

60,  66,   180,  242,  244,  246, 

248. 
Phoenicia  Libanica,  98. 
Phoenicia,  Northern,  50. 
Phoenicia,  Southern,  180. 
Phoenician  inscriptions,  253. 
Phcenicians,  22,  23,  28,  316. 
Phoenician  pottery,  290,  296, 

296/. 


INDEX 


333 


Pierotti's  "  Jerusalem  Ex- 
plored," 237  /. 

Pietro  della  Valle,  136  /.,  159. 

Pigmies,  105. 

Pilate's  pratorium,  47. 

Pilgrims,  119,  123,  124,  126. 

Placentia,  58,  59. 

Pliny,  29,  34,  118,  185. 

Plumptre,  Dr.,  257. 

Pococke,  Dr.  Richard,  133, 134, 
135,  137,  147,  148,  149,  163, 
168,  169,  170,  173,  188,  206, 
236. 

Poloner,  John,  119. 

Polybius,  25,  28. 

Pompeii,  136,  137. 

Pompey,  28. 

Pool  of  Bethesda,  169. 

Pool  of  Siloam,  92,  169  /. 

Porta  Speciosa,  139. 

Porter,  Dr.  J.  L.,  209  /. 

Post,  Dr.  Geo.  E.,  botanist,  264. 

Procopius  of  Caesarea,  57. 

Ptolemy,  34. 

Ptolemy,  Claudius,  33,  185. 

Ptolemy  Lagus,  24. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  25. 

Puchstein,  Professor,  286. 

Pullani,  104. 

Quarantia,  93. 

Quare.smio,    140,    146/.,    159, 

161,  168. 
"Quarterly     Statement,"     260, 

262,  263,  272,  310. 
Queen  of  Great  Britain,  261. 
Quintus  Curtius,  33/.,  160. 

Rabbi    Esthori   R.    Mo-se    Ila- 

Parchi,  114,  115/. 
Raguse,  Due  de,  183. 
Rameses  II.,  16/.,  17,22. 
Rameses  III.,   16  /. 
Ramleh,  67,  72,  125,  126,  141, 

159,  176. 
Ramoth-CJilead,  108. 
R/is  Banlbec,  313. 
Raumer,  195. 
Rauwolf,  L.,  l)otanist,  133,  138, 

150,  156,  187. 


Rawlinson,  Sir  Henry,  257. 

Red  Sea,  98. 

Rehoboam,  King,  12,  16  /., 
281,  292. 

Rehoboth,  212. 

Reland,  Hadrian,  34,  43,  189, 
195 

Renan,  3,  140,  146,  171,  199, 
206  /.,  209  /.,  225  /.,  241-254, 
298. 

Renan's  "Vie  de  Jesus,"  244. 

Renouf,  14/. 

Reuben,  89. 

Revenue  Lists,  69. 

Rey,  111/. 

Rich,  C.  T.,  207. 

Richard,  King  of  England,  76. 

Ritter,  Carl,  2,  3/.,  5,  68,  112, 
181,  182,  195,  205. 

Road  Books,  69. 

Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy,  83. 

Robinson,  Edward,  4,  43,  68, 
80,82,  83,  91,  114,  115,  121, 
122,  131,  150,  156,  158,  163, 
164,  168,  171,  176,  177,  183, 
184,  187,  188,  1S9,  190-223, 
224,  226.  227,  228,  229,  232, 
234,  236,  256,  265,  292. 

Robinson's  Arch,  208,  267. 

Robson,  Dr.,  199. 

Rohricht,  78/.,  114/.,  225/., 
227  /. 

Roman  Empire,  35,  36. 

Roman  pottery,  290. 

Roman  work  in  building,  141. 

Roman  writers,  22,  30. 

Romans,  32,  35,  40,  185. 

Rome,  1,  2,  36,  248. 

Royal  Geographical  Society, 
255. 

Ruad^  Island  of,  58,  65,  171, 
243,  245. 

Riippell,  Eduard,  155. 

Riissegger,  Joseph,  155,  183, 
185/.,  188. 

Rus.sell,  Alexander,  154  /. 

Russia,  85. 

,  Steppes  of,  185. 

Sa-wulf,  78/.,  81,84,  86. 


334 


INDEX 


Saladin,  75,  76,  103,  105. 
St.  Anne's  at  Jerusalem,  239. 
Salt  Sea,  6. 
Samaria,  37,  50,  59,  60,  68,  81, 

85,91,92,  108,135,147,165, 

200,  272. 
Samaria,  30,  58,  66,  76,  139, 

180,  228/.,  229. 
Samaria,  Eastern,  171. 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  159. 
Samaritan  temple,  265. 
Samaritans,  100. 
Samuel,  19. 

Samuel  Bar  Simson,  115/. 
Sandys,  George,  134,  135,  140, 

157,  158,  173,  204. 
Sanson,  43. 
Saracens,  87,  93,  101,  104,  106, 

107,  118,  126. 
Sardis,  144. 
Sarepta,  21,  47. 
Sargon  II.,  19,  20. 
Saul,  19. 

Sayce,  Professor,  16  /. 
Scandalium  (Alexandroschcne), 

116,  145. 
Scenitoe  {Arab),  27. 
Schick,  Dr.  Conrad,  260,  263. 
Schultz,  Mr.,  232,  286. 
Schumacher,  Dr.  Gottlieb,  271, 

272,  284. 
Scott,  Sir  Gilbert,  257. 
Scylax,  Periplus  of,  24  /. 
Scythians,  23. 
Scyihopolis      (Bethshean),     46, 

58,  99/.,  114,  167. 
Sea  of  Galilee,  47,  48,  58,  64, 

66,  77,  79,  82/.,  84,  87,  107, 

113,  133,  135,  147. 
Sea  of  Gennesareth,  51. 
Sebaslia  (Samaria),  30,  58. 
Seetzen,  U.  J.,  133,  148,  149, 

155,  173,  174.  179,  180,  181, 

188,  210/.,  240/.,  255. 
Sefam,  115. 
Seilun  (Shiloh),  169. 
Seleucia,  25,  26,  27,  180  /. 
Seleucia  Pieria,  30. 
Seleucidan   (armies),   25. 
Seleucidan  kings,  274. 


Seleucidan  pottery,  281,  294, 

295. 
Seleucidan  times,  292. 
SeUin,  Dr.,  17  /.,  284. 
Sennacherib,  19,  20,  21. 
Sepp,  Dr.,  226. 
Sepulchral   Towers    of  'Amrit, 

109. 
Sepulchre  of  David,  100. 
Sepulchres  of  Queen  Helena  of 

Adiahene,   147. 
Sepulchres  of  the  Patriarchs,  101 , 

130. 
Sepulchres,  The  Royal,  172. 
Serbonis,  Lake,  27. 
Sesostris,  22. 
Sety  I,  16  /. 

Shaftesbury,  Earl  of,  257. 
Shalmaneser  II.,  19,  20  /. 
Sham'al,  Land  of,  284. 
Shams-ad- Din,  70. 
Shasu  (Bedawin),  16  /. 
Shaubek  (Shobek),  239. 
Shaw,  Thomas,  145,  146,  152, 

155,  171,  188,  204. 
Shechem,  42,  47,  63,  77,  81,  82, 

84,  85,    100,    135,   139,   169, 

198. 
Sheikh  Mohammed,  313. 
Sheikhs  of  Abu  Dis,  134. 
Shephelah,  280,  282,  285. 
Shiloh,  82  f.,  92,  169,  211. 
Shiskak  I.,  16/. 
Shittim,  108. 
Shobek,  103. 

Shocoh,  108,  169,  210,  292. 
Shunem,  108. 
Shuweikeh  (Shocoh),  292. 
Sichar,  47. 
Sidon,  21.  28,  45,  100,  142,  151, 

154,  163,  164,  165,  199,  206, 

244,  252,  298,  319. 
Sidon,  French  factory  at,  162. 
Sidonians,  28. 
Siloam,  47,  56,  60,   105,   138, 

140,  151,  208. 

inscription,  252. 

,  Pool  of,  60.  92,  169,  208, 

277,  284,  306,  307. 
,  Lower  Pool  of,  278. 


INDEX 


335 


Siloam   Tunnel,  60,   123,  140, 

169  /.,  170,  298,  214. 
Silvia    of    Aquitaine,  St.,   52, 

53. 
Sinai,  Monastery  at  Mt.,  55  /., 

117,  120,  173. 
Sinai,  Mt.,  53,  57,  77,  102,  103, 

117,  125,  130,  131,  174,  178, 

180,  194,  196,  222. 
Sinai,  Mountains  of,  273. 
Sinai,  Wilderness  of,  124. 
Sinaitic  inscriptions,  169. 
Sinfjidunum  {Belgrade),  46. 
Siimliit,  his  travels,  13. 
Sinuhit,  Romance  of,  13. 
Skull,  Place  of  the,  8,  8  /. 
Smith,  Dr.  Eli,  194,  196,  198, 

199,  202,  206. 
Smith,   Dr.    George  Adam,  9, 

21/.,  177,  223. 
Smith,  Dr.  H.  B.,  193. 
Smith's     Dictionary     of     the 

Bible,  37. 
Smith's  "Historical  Geography 

of  the  Holy  Land,"  223. 
Smyrna,  144,  153. 
Solinus,  118. 

Solomon,  3,  12,  49,  81,  248. 
Solomon's  Pools,  221 . 
Solomon's  Stables,  130. 
Solomon's  Temple,  12,  81,  87. 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, 257. 
Spiers,  R.  Phen6,  148  /. 
Spon,  a  traveller,  136,  137. 
Stanley,  Dean,  224,  257. 
Stark's  Archajologie,  136/. 
Steever,   Lieutenant,  283. 
Stewart,  Captain,  268. 
Stockliolm,  153. 
Strabo,    26,    28,    30,   34,   163, 

185. 
Stradela  (Jezreel),  46. 
Strand,  B.  T.,  154/. 
Stuart,   Professor  Moses,    192, 

289,  297,  298,  299,  310,  313, 

314,  317. 
Stiitel,  the  geologist,  284. 
Suez,  174. 
Sultan  of  Turkey,  237  /.,  238. 


Sweden,  Queen  of,  153. 

Syria,  1,9  f.,  et  passim. 

Syria,  Central,  240. 

Syria  Damascena,  98. 

Syria  Emisena,  98. 

Syria,  North,  15,  109,  145,  149, 

150,  200,  221,  237,  240,  257, 

284,  286. 
Syria,  Southern,  174. 
Syrian  Mounds,  146. 
Syrian    Protestant    College    at 

Beyrout,  311. 
Syrians,  29,  97,  107. 

Taanach,  15,  17/.,  284,  298. 
Tcd)or,  Mt.,  58,  63,  84,  166. 
Tabula  Peutingeriana,  35. 
Tabula  Theodosiana,  35. 
Tacitus,  31. 
Taddei,  a  mosaist,  253. 
Tadmor  in  the  Wilderness,  101, 

148/. 
Talmud,  Babylonian,  38. 
Talmud,  Palestinian,  38. 
Tantura,  169. 
Tartary,  117. 
Tartus    (Antaradus,    Tortosa), 

246. 
Taurus,  Mt.,  20. 
Tckoa,  50. 
Tell  Duweir,  207. 
Tell-ej-Judeideh,  281,  290,  293, 

303. 
T  ell-el- Amarna,    16,    17/.,    17, 

252,  276. 
T ell-el- Amarna  (tablets  at),  252, 

276. 
Tcll-el-Hesy,    131,  148/.,    159, 

206,  231,  273,  274,  275,  276, 

278,  292,  294,  302,  307. 
Tcll-el-Kady,  6,  80,  294. 
Tell-el-Mutasellim,     7,     211/., 

284. 
Tell-en-Nejileh,  292,  294. 
Tell-es-SAfi,  7,  280,  282,   296, 

392   303. 
Tell-e's-Sult6n,  207. 
Tell  Hum,  142,  209. 
Tell-Sandahannah,     100,     246, 

281,  291,  294. 


336 


INDEX 


Tell-Zakariya,   259,   281,   290, 

292,  303. 
Templars,  The,  93. 
Temple  area,  130,  266. 
Temple  at  'Ain  Fijeh,  147. 
Temple  at  Jebail,  100. 
Temple  at  Jerusalem,,   25,   49, 

84,  87,  94,  95,  104,  130,  138, 

172,  208,  235,  265,  266,  267. 
Temple  Hill  {at  Jerusalem),  8, 

235,  266,  267. 
Temple  of  Fijeh,  171. 
Temple  of  Hercules  {at  Tyre), 

22,  23. 
Temple  of  Nahleh,  137. 
Temple  of  Solomon,  87,  266. 
Temple  of  Venus  {at  Ascalon), 

23. 
Temples  of  Baalbec,  139,  148. 
Templum  Domini,  87,  90,  96. 
Temptation,  Mt.  of,  93. 
Thammuz,  Cult  of,  248. 
TharratcB  {Antaradus),  65. 
"The    Citez    de    Jherusalem," 

106. 
Thebes,  16  /. 
Thenius,  Otto,  232. 
Theoderich,  70,  78/.,  79,  81, 

88,   90,   92,   93,  94,  95,  99, 

109,  119,  185,186,187. 
Theodosius,   Emperor,   35,   57. 
Theological  Seminary,   A\    Y., 

192.' 
Thetmar  (or  Thietmar),  101. 
Thevenot,  134,  162,  163/. 
Thiersch,  Dr.  H.,  247. 
Thietmar  (or  Thetmar),    101, 

103,  108/. 
Thobois,  243,  248. 
Tholuck,  192. 
Thomas,  St.,  54. 
Thomson,  Dr.  W.  M.,  199,  211, 

225. 
,  his  "The  Land  and  the 

Book,"  225,  310. 
Thothmes  I.,  14  /. 
Thothmes  III.,  14,  19. 
Thrvipp,  J.  F.,  234,  235. 
TU)crias,  Lake  of,  36,  71,  73, 

74,  108,  167,  170,  319. 


Tihnah,  89. 

Tiglath  Pileser  I.,  19. 

Tiglath  Pileser  III.,  19,  20  /. 

Tigris,  98. 

Tih,  Table-land  of,  273. 

Timnath-heres,  89. 

Titus,  32,  279. 

Tobler,  Dr.  Titus,  88,  119,  225, 

226,  227,  228,  229. 
Tomb  {of  Jesus),  8,   172,  217, 

218,  232,  233. 
Tomb  of  Joseph  and  Nicodemus, 

214. 
Tombs  of  the  Kings,  138,  139, 

142,  147,  172,  225,  2.36. 
Tomkins,  15/. 
Toron,  Crusading  Castle  of,  157, 

163. 
Tortosa,  Castle  and  Church  at, 

144,  246  (Tarti/s),  247. 
Touniefort,  152. 
Tower  of  Antonia,  139. 
Tower  of  David,  83,  109,  145. 
Trachonitis,  80,  81. 
Trajan,  31. 

Trans-J ordanic  provinces,  115. 
"Travels  of  a  Mohar,"  18,  19. 
Tripoli,  28,  73,  76,  79,  100,  106, 

133,  1.57,  161,  163,  164,  170, 

180/. 
Tristram,   Canon   H.   B.,    196, 

200,211,241,257. 
Trumbull,  Dr.  Clay,  10. 
Tucher  of  Nuremberg,  127. 
Tyre,  17,  22,  23,  28,  33,  45,  63, 

65,  66,  76,  96,  98,  104,  106, 

142,  163,  164,  165,  200,  211, 

242,  244,  252,  319. 
Tyre,  Island  of,  63. 
tyre,  Ladder  of,  200. 
Tyre,  William  of,  185. 
Tyrians,  28. 
Tyropxan  Valley,  138,  172,  278. 

Umm-cl-  Awamid,     140,     252, 

253. 
Umm  Lnkis,  273. 
Union    Theological    Seminary, 

189,  192,  220. 
University  of  Cambridge,  261. 


INDEX 


337 


University  of  Oxford,  261. 
Upper  Rutenu,  14,  15. 
Upper  Spring  of  Gihon,  235. 
Upper  Tenu,  13. 
Uri  de  Biel,  115/. 
Ursinus,  152. 
Usdum,  83. 
Usertesen  I.,  13. 
Uz  (Ausitis),  54. 

Vale  of  Elah,  82  /.,  133,   169, 

170,  211,  292. 
Vale  of  Eschol,  10. 
"Valley  called  Bakar,"  80. 
Valley  of  Hinnom,  92,  109. 
Valley  of  JelwKhaphat,  92,  109, 

139. 
Van  de  Velde,  225,  268. 
Van  Egmond,  135,  144,  166. 
Vatican  Librarv,  159. 
Venice,  125,  157. 
Venus,    her   shrine  destroyed, 

216. 
Venus,  Temple  of,  249,  250. 
Verhouen,  140. 
Via  Dolorosa,  157. 
Virgin's    Fountain,    140,    169, 

170,  208. 
Virgin's  Tomb,  110,  169. 
Vohiey,     Voyages    of,     131  /., 

148/.,  155,  172,  207/. 
Von  Luschan,  Dr.,  284. 
Von  Schubert,   146,   156,   177, 

183,   195. 
Von    Suchem,    Ludolph,    112, 

116,  117,  186. 

Waddington,  M.,  240. 

Wady  Beit  Hanina,  82/.,  133, 

169. 
Wady-el-'Arabah,  239,  273. 
Wady  el  Kelt,  96. 
Wady-er-Rabdbeh,    172,    173. 
Wcuii/  Ilammdm,  147. 
Wady-Milsa,  179,  180,  182  /. 
Warren,  Sir  Charles,  170,  208, 

2.37/.,  265,  267,  268,  278. 
Wen  Amen,  18. 
Western  Hill  at  Jerusalem,  233, 

234,  235,  267. 


Wetzstein,  240  /. 

Wheler,  a  traveller,  136. 

Wilderness  of  Hor,  89. 

William  of  Baldinsel,  82,  116, 
118. 

William,  Archbishop  of  Tyre, 
98,  104,  105,  185. 

Williams,  Dr.  George,  232,  233, 
257. 

, ''  The  Holy  City,"  232/. 

WilHbald,  St.,  64,  65,  70. 

Wilson,  Sir  Charles,  8/.,  37, 
215  /.,  258,  264,  265,  268. 

Winckelmann,  136. 

Winckler,  Dr.,  17/. 

Winna,  King  of  Wessex,  64. 

Wood,  148. 

Wright,  Dr.  T.  F.,  of  Cam- 
bridge, 262. 

Xerxes,  Canal  of,  24. 

Yakut,  69,  70,  187. 

Yakut,  his  Geographical  Dic- 
tionary, 187. 

Yarmuk,  79. 

Yedhna,  201. 

York,  Archbishop  of,  255,  257, 
260,  283. 

Zach's   Monatliche   Correspon- 

denz,  148/.,  174. 
Zakariya,  314. 
Zakkala,  18. 
Zedekiah's  wife,  236. 
Zenjirli,  Mound  of,  284. 
Zenophilus,  Consul,  45. 
Zera'in,  211. 
Ziklag,  130,  131. 
Zion,  8,  42,  47,  50,  56,  57,  59, 

62,  76,  77,  92,  100,  109,  114, 

127,  138,  157,  172,  173,  208, 

235. 
Zion,  Convent  of  Mt.,  126. 
Ziph,  89,  204,  210. 
Zoan,  Field  of,  112  f. 
Zuallardo    (Johann    Zuallart), 

1.35,  138,  156,  1.57,  158. 
Zunz    on    the    Geography    of 

Palestine,  115/. 


Ubc  I6ls  Xectures  tor  1899 

THE   SOCIAL  MEANING  OF  MODERN 
RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENTS  IN  ENGLAND 

By  THOMAS  C.  HALL,   D.D. 


12mo,  283  pp..  $1.50 


CONTENTS 

Introduction.  Radicalism  and  Reform. 

The  Beginning  of  Methodism.  The  Broad  Church  Movement. 

The  Methodist  Movement.  The  High  Church  Reaction. 

(•England's  Condition  and  the  Ev^an-  The  Social   Significance    in    Gen- 

gelical  Party.  eral. 

The  Evangelical  Party  and  Social  A  Review. 

Reform. 


"An  admirable  book.  The  purpose  is  comprehensive  and  historic, 
and  is  pursued  with  liberality  of  feeling  and  with  insight.  The  author 
conceives  clearly  the  immense  importance  of  the  social  and  religious 
changes  that  have  taken  place  in  England  in  the  present  century  and 
the  last  portion  of  the  previous  one.  .  .  .  Free  of  dogmatism,  he  finds 
his  way  among  these  great  events  as  an  Alpine  road  threads  ravines 
and  passes  right  and  left  the  lofty  summits. '' — T/ie  Dial. 

"  An  unusually  interesting  review  of  English  religious  development 
from  the  social  point  of  view." — Review  of  Reviews, 

"Dr.  Hall's  volume  is  marked  by  great  breadth  of  view,  depth  of 
insight,  and  illuminating  fairness  of  statement.  The  entire  treatment  is 
judicious,  instructive,  hopeful,  pertinent  to  the  time.  Its  spirit  is  one  of 
warm  human  sympathy  and  it^  literary  style  is  that  of  a  master  of  good 
English. "— Chicago  Tribune. 

"  Stimulating,  informing,  inspiring." — The  Standard. 

"  An  admirable  and  valuable  volume." — Philadelphia  Press. 

"  The  treatment  is  a  philosophic  one,  and  it  is  flavored  with  deep 
religious  feeling  and  an  appreciation  of  the  significant  presence  in  the 
sweep  of  events  of  the  guiding  spirit  of  truth."— Boston   Transcript. 


Ubc  Bli?  Xectures  for  1897 
THE   BIBLE   AND   ISLAM!   OR, 

The  Influence  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  ot 
THE  Religion  of  Mohammed 

By  henry   preserved   SMITH,  D.D. 
1  2mo,  31  9  pp.,  $1 .50 

CONTENTS 

I.  The  Apostle  of  Allah.  VI.  Revelation  and  Prophecy. 

II.  The  Common  Basis  in  Heathenism.  VII.  Sin  and  Salvation. 

III.  The  Koran  Narratives.  VIII.  The  Service  of  God. 

IV.  The  Doctrine  of  God.  IX.  The  Future  Life. 
V.  The  Divine  Government.  X.  Church  and  State. 

"We  should  be  inclined  to  regard  this  volume  as  perhaps  the  very 
best  for  one  who  desired  to  get  a  clear  understanding  of  the  doctrines 
rather  than  of  the  practical  workings  of  Mohammedanism." 

—  TAe  Outlook. 
"  The  general  reader  will  not  meet  with  a  more  complete  compendium 
of  the  religious  teachings  of  the  Prophet  of  Arabia." 

— New  York  Commtrcial  Advertiser. 


Ube  Bl^  Xectures  tor  l89l 

ORIENTAL    RELIGIONS    AND 
CHRISTIANITY 

A  Course  of  Lectures   Delivered   Before  the   Students  of 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York 

By    frank    F.    ELLINWOOD,    D.D. 

Secretary  of  the  Piwsbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions. 
1  2mo,  S84  pp.,  $  1 .75 

CONTENTS 

I.   The  Need  of  Understanding  the  False  Religions. 
II.  The    Methods  of  the  Early  Christian  Church   in    Dealing  with 
Heathenism. 

III.  The  Successive  Developments  of  Hinduism. 

IV.  The  Bhagavad  Gita  and  the  New  Testament. 
V.   Buddhism  and  Christianity. 

VI.  Mohammedanism  Past  and  Present. 
VII.  The  Traces  of  a  Primitive  Monotheism. 

VIII.  Indirect  Tributes  of  Heathen    Systems  to  the  Doctrines  of  the 
Bible. 
IX.   Ethical  Tendencies  of  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Philosophies. 
X.   The  Divine  Supremacy  of  the  Christian  Faith. 


THE  ELY  LECTURES 


"  The  special  value  of  this  volume  is  in  its  careful  differentiation  of  the 
schools  of  religionists  in  the  East,  and  the  distinct  points  of  antagonism 
of  the  very  fundamental  ideas  of  Oriental  religions  toward  the  religion 
of  Jesus.  " — Outlook. 

"A  more  instructive  book  has  not  been  issued  for  years." 

— New  York  Observer. 
"  The  author  has  read  widely,  reflected  carefully,  and  written  ably." 

—  Congregationalist. 
"It  is  a  book  which  we  can  most  heartily  commend  to  every  pastor 
and  to  every  intelligent  student,  of  the  work  which  the  Church  is  called 
to  do  in  the  world." — The  Missionary. 


XCbe  Bl^  Xectures  tor  1890 

THE    EVIDENCE    OF    CHRISTIAN 
EXPERIENCE 

By  lewis   FRENCH   STEARNS,  D.D. 

12mo,  473  pp.,  $2.00 

CONTENTS 

I.  The  Evidences  of  To-day. 
II.    Philosophical  Presuppositions — Theistic. 

III.  Philosophical  Presuppositions — Anthropological. 

IV.  The  Genesis  of  the  Evidence. 
V.   The  Growth  of  the  P>idence. 

VI.  The  Verification  of  the  Evidence. 

VII.  Philosophical  Objections. 

VIII.  Theological  Objections. 

IX.  Relation  to  other  Evidences. 

X.  Relation  to  other  Evidences — Conclusion. 

"  His  presentation  of  the  certainty,  reality,  and  scientific  character  of 
the  facts  in  a  Christian  consciousness  is  very  strong." — The  Lutheran. 

"  An  important  contribution  to  tlie  library  of  apologetics. " 

— Living  Church. 
''  A  good  and  useful  work." — The  Chtirchman. 

"  The  tone  and  spirit  which  pervade  them  are  worthy  of  the  theme, 
and  the  style  is  excellent.  There  is  nothing  of  either  cant  or  pedantry 
m  the  treatment.  There  is  simplicity,  directness,  and  freshness  of 
manner  which  strongly  win  and  hold  the  reader." — Chicago  Advance. 


Ube  /IDorse  Xectures  tor  1904 
THE  CRITICISM  OF  THE  FOURTH  GOSPEL 

By  the  rev.  WILLIAM  SAND  AY,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Lady  Margaret  Professor  and  Canon  of  Christ  Church 
Oxford,  England 


8vo,  268  pages,  $1.75  net.    Postagre  16  cents 


"  A  work  of  marked  ability,  and  evinces  genuine  scholarship  mingled 
with  profound  reverence  for  the  gospels.  ' — The  Interior. 


"  His  scholarship  is  splendid  ;  and  his  sincerity  in  committing  himself 
to  truth,  wherever  it  may  lead  him,  is  above  suspicion.  As  might  be 
expected  these  lectures  constitute  an  exceedingly  valuable  contribution 
to  the  subject  with  which  they  deal.  .  .  .  The  book  is  indispensable  to 
the  student  of  Joannine  criticism,  and  will  prove  to  be  both  interesting 
and  profitable  to  intelligent  readers  generally." — T/te  Living  Church. 

"  No  one  who  wishes  to  know  the  latest  and  best  that  has  been  said 
on  this  subject  can  afford  to  be  ignorant  of  Dr.  Sanday's  work." 

— Christian  Work  and  Evangelist. 


"  Professor  Sanday  of  Oxford  is  known  widely  as  a  thorough,  careful 
scholar  in  learning  relating  to  the  New  Testament,  a  clear  and  interest- 
ing writer  and  a  Christian  critic  of  unusual  meekness  and  gentility. 
These  desirable  qualities  are  exhibited  in  his  defense  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel." — New  York  Evening  Post. 

"  These  excellent  lectures,  which  discuss  one  of  the  long-debated 
questions  in  New  Testament  study,  will  surely  appeal  to  a  far  wider 
audience  than  that  which  heard  them  delivered." — Brooklyn  Eagle. 

"The  whole  work  certainly  clears  the  ground  of  no  little  amount  of 
the  rubbish  of  hostile  criticism  and  prepares  for  further  advance  in  the 
direction  of  acceptance  of  the  Fourth  Gospel." 

— The  American  Messenger. 


XTbe  /iDorse  Xectures  tor  1898 
THE    CHRISTIAN    CONQUEST   OF  ASIA 

Studies  and  Personal  Observations  of  Oriental 
Religions 

By  JOHN   HENRY   BARROWS,  D.D. 
12mo,  $1 .50 


CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS,   PUBLISHERS 


Contents  : — I.  Beginning  at  Jerusalem  ;  or  Christianity  and  Juda- 
ism.— II.  The  Cross  and  the  Crescent  in  Asia. — III.  Observations  of 
Popular  Hinduism. — IV.  Philosophic  Hinduism. — V.  Some  Difficulties 
in  the  Hindu  Mind  in  Regard  to  Christianity. — VI.  Christianity  and 
Buddhism. — VII.  Confucianism,  and  the  Awakening  of  China. — VIII. 
Success  of  Asiatic  Missions  :  America's  Responsibility  to  the  Orient. 

Dr.  Barrows's  book  gives  an  account  of  the  results  achieved  by  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  into  Asia  during  this  century.  The  exact 
religious  condition  of  the  Asia  of  to-day  is  clearly  detailed  ;  and  a  hope- 
ful forecast  is  given  with  regard  to  the  continuance  of  the  work  already 
auspiciously  begun  in  the  Far  East. 


XTbe  /IDorse  Xectures  for  1895 

THE  WHENCE   AND  THE  WHITHER  OF 

MAN 

A  Brief  History   of   his   Origin   and    Development, 
through  Conformity  to  Environment 

By  JOHN  M.   TYLER 

Professor  of  Biology,  Amherst  College 

1  2mo,  3  1  2  pp.,  $  1 .75 

Contents: — Introduction. — I.  The  Problem  :  The  Mode  of  its  Solu- 
tion.— II.  Protozoa  to  Worms  :  Cells,  Tissues,  and  Organs. — III.  Worms 
to  Vertebrates:  Skeleton  and  Head. — IV.  Vertebrates:  Backbone  and 
Brain. — V.  The  History  of  Mental  Development  and  its  Sequence  of 
Functions. — VI.  Natural  Selection  and  Environment. — VII.  Conformity 
to  Environment. — VIII.  Man. — IX.  The  Teachings  of  the  Bible. — X. 
Present  Aspect  of  the  Theory  of  Evolution. — Chart  showing  Sequence 
of  Attainments  and  of  Dominant  Functions. — Phylogenetic  Chart  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom. — Index. 

"  It  is  thoroughly  strong  and  able,  and  in  a  perspicuous  way  presents  the  doctrine 
of  evolution  in  its  relation  to  man  in  his  social,  moral,  and  religious  nature.  To  the 
question  '  Whence?'  the  author  answers,  as  all  evolutionists  do,  '  Protoplasm  '  ;  to 
trie  question  Whither'  his  reply  is,  '  Kvcrythin^  points  to  a  spiritual  end  in  animal 
evolution.'  'I'he  whole  discussion  is  calm  and  evidently  in  the  interest  of  truth 
rather  than  of  tradition."  —  The  Outlook. 


Ubc  Hbovsc  Xecturcs  tor  1894 
THE     RELIGIONS     OF    JAPAN 

From  the  Dawn  of  History  to  the 
Era  of  the  Meiji 

By  WILLIAM    ELLIOT    GRIFFIS,  D.D. 

Formerly  of  the  Imperial  University  of  Tokio;  Author  of  "The  Mikado's  Empire'' 
and  "Corea,  the  Hermit  Nation" 

1  2mo,  457  pp.,  $2.00 

Contents  : — I.  Primitive  Faith  :  Religion  before  Books. — II.  Shinto  : 
Myths  and  Ritual. —  III.  The  Kojiki  and  its  Teachings. —  IV.  The 
Chinese  Ethical  System  in  Japan. — V.  Confucianism  in  its  Philosophical 
Form. — VI.  The  Buddhism  of  Northern  Asia. — VII.  Riyobu,  or  Mixed 
Buddhism. — VIII.  Northern  Buddhism  in  its  Doctrinal  Evolutions.— 
IX.  The  Buddhism  of  the  Japanese. — X.  Japanese  Buddhism  in  its 
Missionary  Development. — XI.  Roman  Christianity  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century. — XII.  Two  Centuries  of  Silence. —  Notes,  Authorities,  and 
Illustrations. — Index. 

"The  book  is  excellent  throughout,  and  indispensable  to  the  religious  student." — 
Tie  A  tlantic  Monthly. 

"  To  any  one  desiring  a  knowledge  of  the  development  and  ethical  status  of  the 
East,  this  book  will  prove  of  the  utmost  assistance,  and  Dr.  Griffis  may  be  thanked 
for  throwing  a  still  greater  charm  about  the  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun." 

— The  Churchman. 


Xlbe  /IDorsc  Xectures  tor  1893 

THE    PLACE   OF   CHRIST    IN    MODERN 
THEOLOGY 

By  a.  M.  FAIRBAIRN,  M.A.,  D.D. 

Principal  of  Mansfield  College,  Oxford 

8vo,  556  pp.,  $2.50 

SUMMARY 
Introduction.— TWS.   RETURN   TO  CHRIST. 
Book    I.— Historical  and  Critical. 

Division  I. — The    Law   of  Development   in   Theology   and   the 

Church. 
Division  II. — Historical  Criticism  and  the  History  of  Christ 
Book  II. — Theological  and  Constructive. 

Division  I. — The  New  Testament  Interpretation  of  Christ. 
Division  II. — Christ  the  Interpretation  of  God. 
Division  III.  — A.  God  as  Interpreted  by  Christ  the  Determinative 
Principle  in  Theology. 
B.   God  as  Interpreted  by  Christ  the  Determinative 
Principle  in  the  Church. 

"  One  of  the  most  valuable  and  comprehensive  contributions  to  theology  that  has 
been  made  during  this  generation." — London  Spectator. 

"  Suggestive,  stimulating,  and  a  harbinger  of  the  future  catholic  theology." 

— Boston  Literary  World. 
"  An  important  contribution  to  theological  literature." — London  Times. 


I 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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